Component 1c: British Film Since 1995 (Narrative)

Explore how the narratives of the films you have studied influence your response to key characters.

Sample Assessment Materials

Plan:

Introduction

Both Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) and This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007) are films that aptly demonstrate how narrative can be utilised in a variety of means to influence the audience’s response to key characters. Trainspotting employs a frenetic, nonlinear narrative that serves to immerse and engross the viewer within the hedonic world of the five main characters. Alongside this, the audience is also predominantly encouraged to empathise with the protagonist, Mark Renton, as he struggles to overcome the hardships of heroin addiction over the course of the film. Conversely, This is England employs a clear-cut linear narrative that has its roots within cinema vérité and British social realism of the 1980s. However, Shane Meadows employs the use of montage and a manipulative non-diegetic composed score to elicit empathy towards Shaun, showcasing the dangers of indoctrination. To contrast this, Meadows also implements narrative techniques to incite condemnation towards the film’s primary antagonist, Combo, who is representative of the nationalist ideologies that the film critiques throughout.

Body:

Trainspotting – employs a frenetic pace, nonlinear narrative and poetic dialogue to encourage the audience to become engrossed within the five characters’ stories. Particular empathy and engagement directed towards the protagonist, Renton.

• Opening sequence – jump cuts, ellipsis, breakneck pacing – immediately immerses the viewer within hedonism
• Renton’s non-diegetic narration – poetic and enthralling. Serves to bridge the gap between sequences. Thin, attractive, verbally articulate – highly appealing protagonist.
• Lust for Life by Iggy Pop – pulsing, bombastic retro score. The characters’ nostalgia.
• Title cards and freeze frames – release from the pandemonium to introduce us to each character, establishing an ensemble cast
• Action match – Renton falling on pitch and in the den
• Sick Boy James Bond references – relatable and appealing
• Bizet’s Habanera alongside exaggerated jagged wooden planks- comical reinforcement of Renton’s isolated struggle to “get off the skag”
• Worst toilet in Scotland – surrealist filmmaking, Brian Eno score, brief interlude from the frenetic pacing. Renton‘s distraught inner turmoil
• London Montage – time compression, speed of change in Renton’s life. Juxtaposing EDM contemporary score.
• Closing monologue mirrors Renton’s opening “choose life” speech. Full circle, confessional remarks. Narrative satisfaction, empathising with Renton’s final decision to take the money.

This is England – use of montage, newsreel footage serves to garner the audience’s empathy towards Shaun’s indoctrination. British social realism roots. Incite repulsion and condemnation towards Combo.

• Opening montage – newsreel footage establish historical context, crucial in establishing the foundational empathy towards Shaun. Cause and effect – Shaun’s impoverished, fatherless way of life is as a result of the clips featured in the montage
• Fun with friends montage – uses ellipses to highlight the budding relationship between Shaun and the skinheads. Innocent activities – swimming, puddle jumping – juxtaposes thuggish exterior. Highlights vulnerability and their co-dependence
• Combo’s story – threatening atmosphere establishes his repugnance. Tight closeups, emphasis of racial epithets, manipulative Ludovico Einaudi score
• Shaun superimposed against racist graffiti – empathy towards his indoctrination
• Final scene – Shaun throwing the English flag into the water. His rejection of a nationalist ideology.

Conclusion

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Essay – Version 1

Both Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) and This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007) are films that aptly demonstrate how narrative can be utilised in a variety of means to influence the audience’s response to key characters. Trainspotting employs a frenetic, nonlinear narrative that serves to immerse and engross the viewer within the hedonistic world of the five main characters. Alongside this, the audience is also predominantly encouraged to empathise with the protagonist, Mark Renton, as he struggles to overcome the hardships of heroin addiction over the course of the film. Conversely, This is England employs a clear-cut linear narrative that has its roots within cinema vérité and British social realism of the 1980s. However, Shane Meadows employs the use of montage and a manipulative non-diegetic composed score to elicit empathy towards Shaun, showcasing the dangers of nationalist indoctrination. To contrast this, Meadows also implements narrative techniques to incite condemnation towards the film’s primary antagonist, Combo, who is representative of the nationalist ideologies that the film critiques throughout.

The opening sequence of Trainspotting employs a variety of narrative techniques to influence the viewer’s response towards the characters. The disjointed, frenetic narrative drive is immediately established by the film’s cold open in medias res, beginning with a wide shot of Renton and Spud fleeing from the authorities down an Edinburgh street. The scene is accompanied by the non-diegetic compiled score, Lust for Life by Iggy Pop – a pulsing, bombastic song that serves as a nostalgically ‘retro’ soundtrack, exemplifying the characters’ youth. The song immediately immerses the audience within the hedonistic world of Trainspotting, forming a connection between the viewer and the characters. Alongside the score, the scene is also accompanied by Renton’s non-diegetic narration, beginning with the iconically anti-capitalist “choose life” monologue. Renton’s narration is both poetic and enthralling in nature, also serving to bridge the gap between scenes. Renton’s articulate disposition alongside his thin, attractive appearance paints him as a highly charismatic, appealing protagonist to follow throughout the film.

The opening sequence of the film also employs the use of freeze frames and title cards to introduce us to each of the five characters. This allows the viewer a brief release from the pandemonium to soak in each character’s introductory frame, embedding the film’s ensemble cast in the mind of the viewer. Renton also briefly breaks the fourth wall when he looks at the camera through the windshield, grinning at the viewer during his freeze frame. When Renton is hit by the ball during the football training scene, an action match is implemented that displays him falling to the ground after smoking a cigarette in the drug den. This action match creates a light-hearted juxtaposition – the exhilarating camerawork is highly appealing to view, further engrossing the audience in the frenzied world inhabited by Renton. In addition, when Sick Boy makes reference to multiple James Bond films – a seminal hallmark of British pop culture – it is appeals to a British audience, creating a sense of relatability between Sick Boy and the viewer.

Danny Boyle employs surrealist filmmaking techniques to reinforce Renton’s distraught state of mind as he attempts to quit heroin. As he lists off his supplies for isolation, the non-diegetic compiled classical score – Georges Bizet’s Habanera – comically enhances Renton’s struggles. The exaggerated imagery of the jagged wooden planks on the door also serves as a metaphorical representation of Renton’s isolation. Alongside this, the infamous ‘worst toilet in Scotland’ is theatrically repulsive, expressively displaying Renton’s perturbed inner turmoil. This brief vignette also serves as a brief interlude from the film’s frenetic pacing, allowing the viewer to deepen their connection to Renton.

The London montage that signals the film’s second act also exemplifies how narrative is used to elicit empathy towards Renton throughout Trainspotting. The use of the non-diegetic compiled score, Think About The Way by Ice MC – an EDM song exemplary the 1990s – starkly juxtaposes the retro ‘70s soundtrack of the first half of the film, signalling a change in location and society for Renton. The modern metropolis of London is displayed through an array of quick closeups of cliched sights including Tower Bridge, buses, and Piccadilly Circus. These sights contrast sharply with the Scottish landscapes seen earlier in the film, representing Renton’s new life and the challenges that come with it. Boyle’s use of montage is a narrative technique that conveys a sense of time compression, emphasising the overwhelming speed of change in Renton’s life.

Renton’s closing monologue mirrors his opening “choose life” speech, as they both follows a similar rhythm and cadence. Renton’s confessional remarks create a sense of closure and resolution, bringing the narrative back full circle. Renton’s final embrace of capitalism exemplified through his final decision to take the money is cathartic, leaving the viewer to question what they would do in Renton’s shoes. Boyle’s use of a focus pull away from Renton provides a sense of finality, leaving the viewer – who is now emotionally invested within Renton’s narrative – deeply satisfied.

In stark contrast to Trainspotting, This is England opens with an extended montage made up of newsreel footage, portraying events such as the Iranian embassy crisis, that serves to root the film within the relevant historical context of 1980s Thatcherist Britain. Meadows’ intention is to create a sense of cause-and-effect that underpins the film’s narrative structure – when we are introduced to Shaun, the viewer comes to realise that Shaun’s impoverished, fatherless way of life is as a result of the events portrayed throughout the montage. The opening sequence of the film serves as a crucial establishing foundation in inciting empathy towards Shaun from the viewer.

The ‘fun with friends’ montage highlights the budding relationship between Shaun and the skinheads, further deepening the relationship between the characters and the viewer. Shaun’s acceptance into skinhead gang is a significant moment in the film’s narrative structure – the gang becomes a surrogate family for Shaun. The innocence of the characters is exemplified through their childish activities – the montage showcases the gang swimming together, alongside running and jumping in puddles. This perhaps subverts the viewer’s preconception of skinhead culture, as the display of light-hearted fun juxtaposes their intimidating, thuggish exterior.

The sequence in which Combo tells a prison story serves to establish his racist ideology, positioning the audience to condemn Combo as the primary antagonist of the film. Combo’s gatecrash instantly shatters the placid equilibrium of the party, creating a threatening atmosphere, serving to reveal his repugnance to the audience. Meadows’ utilisation of tight close-ups of Combo’s mouth at eye level emphasises his racially-driven hatred, reinforced by his utterances of racial epithets. Ludovico Einaudi’s non-diegetic composed piano score is manipulatively emotional, a departure from traditional social realism that serves to bolster the emotional weight of the scene, causing the viewer to denounce Combo’s nationalist ideologies. This culminates in a heightened level of empathy towards Shaun later in the film as he is indoctrinated by Combo to perform racially-driven hate crimes. This is underpinned by a low-angle shot of Shaun walking under a tunnel that is superimposed with racist graffiti, accompanied by Einaudi’s manipulative score.

The final scene of the film displays Shaun throwing the English flag into the sea, being a powerful conclusion to the film’s narrative. It serves as a symbol of Shaun’s rejection of nationalist ideologies and his acceptance of a more inclusive identity. The final shot is a closeup of Shaun looking directly at the camera, breaking the fourth wall to leave a lasting impression on the audience. This scene serves to both highlight the dangers of nationalist indoctrination and provide a level of finality and catharsis – the audience has established an empathetic connection with Shaun over the course of the film, with this scene marking the end of his character arc.

In conclusion, both Trainspotting and This is England showcase how narrative techniques can be implemented to influence the audience’s response towards key characters. Boyle’s use of nonlinear narrative, score, and non-diegetic narration culminate to immerse the viewer within the hedonistic world of the characters first and foremost, encouraging empathy towards Mark Renton as he struggles with drug addiction. Meadows’ approach appears to be much more direct, utilising audience positioning, newsreel footage, alongside a highly manipulative score to fully influence the viewer’s perceptions of Shaun and Combo in order to critique the nationalist ideologies that plagued Britain during the 1980s.

This Is England Close-Up (Closing Sequence)

Overview

The closing sequence of This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007) serves as an epilogue, tying up loose ends and giving closure to the film’s characters. It also has a wider social commentary on nationalism and the effects it can have on working-class communities. The sequence includes montages of images depicting life in England, newsreel footage of the Falklands War, and the return of soldiers from the war. The final shot displays Shaun throwing a British flag into the water, symbolising his rejection of a nationalist ideology.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Nationalist

The closing sequence of the film is a scathing critique of nationalism and its effects on working-class communities. Shane Meadows utilises montages of images depicting working-class poverty in England against the backdrop of the Falklands War. The newsreel footage of the Falklands War also serves as a commentary on the dangers of patriotism. The footage shows a soldier erecting a British flag on a tiny town hall in a village – the viewer is encouraged to question the validity of the British victory.

The victory in the war is visually compared with the pointless violence of Combo and his gang, highlighting the futility of nationalist ideologies. This message is further reinforced by the final shot of Shaun throwing the British flag into the water, symbolising his ultimate rejection of a nationalist ideology.

The use of symbolism in the sequence is also notable. The film’s title, “This is England,” is a reference to Combo’s rhetoric of English pride and patriotism that film attempts to ultimately reject. However, the film shows the grim reality of working-class life in England and the dangers of blindly following nationalist ideologies. The rejection of nationalism by Shaun is also reflected in his appearance, as he is dressed differently from his racist attire in the film. This transformation represents the rejection of nationalist ideologies and the embracing of a more inclusive identity.

The film’s ideology also presents no room for disagreement, with Shaun’s final action symbolically communicating a rejection of British pride and patriotism. Meadows shows no interest in leaving his anti-nationalist agenda up for interpretation or debate, bolstered by the film’s use of a notably manipulative non-diegetic score.

Narrative Analysis

The closing sequence of This is England begins with a montage made up of newsreel footage that mirrors the opening sequence of the film. This footage also adds a layer of authenticity to the film’s narrative, serving as a commentary on the dangers of patriotism and its effects on working-class communities. The return of soldiers from the war also ties into the film’s themes of masculinity and violence, as we see the effects of war on soldiers and their families.

The final shot of Shaun throwing the British flag into the water is a powerful conclusion to the film’s narrative. It serves as a symbol of Shaun’s rejection of nationalist ideologies and his acceptance of a more inclusive identity. The shot also leaves a lasting impression on the audience, highlighting the dangers of nationalist indoctrination.

This Is England Close-Up (“Racist Bother Montage” Sequence)

Overview

The ‘Racist Bother Montage’ sequence is a pivotal moment in This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007). The sequence takes place after one of the members of the group, Combo, returns from prison with newfound racist beliefs. The scene depicts the group’s descent into racism, as they begin to target immigrants and other minority groups. The scene is significant as it highlights the danger of groupthink and indoctrination, and its impact on impressionable young people.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Nationalist

The sequence primary serves as the ultimate indictment of nationalism, racism, and the toxic ideology that is often associated with it. The sequence is a critique of the rise of far-right movements, the dangers of groupthink and the indoctrination of young people into extremist ideologies. Meadows uses a variety of techniques to convey this message.

The camera work is gliding, graceful and carefully framed, as seen in previous montages earlier in the film. This creates a sense of unease and discomfort for the audience, as they forced to confront to the racism head-on. The film highlights the absurdity of racism, by portraying the skinheads as a group of pathetic losers. The group initially seems intimidating especially when in a large groups, most evidently when they bully the women in an underpass. However, they are individually pathetic and dim witted, as evidenced by their misspelled graffiti. This technique serves to undermine the group’s power and authority.

Meadows also depicts the indoctrination of Shaun, as he is taught racist phrases and is trained in the ways of racist hate crime. The grown men’s threats and bullying of children is also a powerful critique of their racist ideology. The overlay of racist graffiti imagery, symbolically conveying Shaun’s gradual descent into the racist culture. This technique serves to further highlight the dangers of racism and its potential for destruction.

Meadows provides an apt critique of nationalism and racism, highlighting their dangers and their potential to harm individuals and society. In effect, this creates a sense of unease and discomfort, as the audience is forced witness the repugnance of racism and the danger of extremist ideologies.

Narrative Analysis

The ‘Racist Bother’ sequence is also crucial moment in the film’s narrative structure. The scene serves as a turning point for Shaun’s character, as he is exposed to the dark side of the skinhead movement. The sequence is shot in a way that creates a sense of tension and unease, as the audience becomes aware of the group’s descent into racism.

The use of a manipulative non-diegetic score serves to heighten the tension and create a sense of foreboding. The music is used to underscore the dangers of extremist ideologies and their potential for destruction. The scene is shot in a way that highlights the danger of groupthink and indoctrination.

This Is England Close-Up (“Combo’s Story Montage” Sequence)

Overview

The ‘Combo’s story’ sequence in This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007) introduces us to Combo, a repugnant nationalist that serves as the film’s primary antagonist. He gatecrashes Woody’s party after being released from prison and tells the gang a story, during which his racist disposition is revealed. The sequence is a turning point in the film’s narrative, as Combo’s actions and beliefs have a significant impact on the story’s direction. The sequence also highlights the film’s anti-nationalist ideology and exemplifies its narrative structure.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Nationalist

The sequence supports an anti-nationalist ideological approach by showcasing the negative impact of nationalism and racism. Shane Meadows, intended to expose the flaws of British society during the 1980s and how nationalism and racism played a role in dividing the country. This sequence achieves this by showing Combo’s true character, highlighting his malice and bigotry towards minorities. The use of handheld cameras contrasts the gliding Steadicam shots during the preceding montage, emphasising Combo’s raw and unpolished nature.

Combo’s enunciation of racial epithets is particularly striking and showcases his true beliefs. This scene highlights Combo’s malice and bigotry, illustrating how nationalism and racism can create an atmosphere of hate and division. The closeups of his face and the brief reactionary cutaways show a clear divide among the characters. Woody, Lol, and Milky show visible opposition, while Pukey laughs at Combo’s racist caricature. This scene also highlights the power of peer pressure and how it can influence an individual’s beliefs and actions.

The non-diegetic piano score is particularly manipulative, being an exception to the film’s footing in British social realism, emphasizing the emotional impact of Combo’s actions on the audience. Meadows’ intentions are to make the audience feel uncomfortable and disgusted with Combo’s actions, which are meant to highlight the negative consequences of nationalism and racism.

Narrative Analysis

The sequence also exemplifies the narrative structure of the film by serving as a turning point in the story. Combo’s gatecrash instantly creates a threatening atmosphere, revealing his repugnant character to the audience. The focus on Combo receiving the majority of screen time also highlights his importance in the story’s direction. When he is interrupted by Shaun, a 12-year-old, and show visible annoyance, Combo’s insecurity and vulnerability is emphasised.

The use of tight close-ups of Combo’s mouth at eye level emphasizes the hatred and emphasis on racial epithets, showcasing the intensity of the scene. The subduing of diegetic sound is a departure from British social realism, emphasising the emotional impact of the scene on the audience. This creates a powerful and emotional scene that highlights the negative impact of nationalism and racism.

This Is England Close-Up (“Fun With Friends Montage” Sequence)

Overview

The “fun with friends montage” sequence in This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007) is a pivotal moment in the film’s narrative structure. We follows our protagonist, Shaun, as he becomes accepted into a surrogate family of skinheads, who take him under their wing. This sequence marks a turning point for Shaun, who has now found acceptance within the group of skinheads.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Nationalist

The sequence’s choice of music is significant as it reinforces the anti-nationalist ideology of the film. The music is similar to the opening sequence, featuring a non-diegetic reggae song, a genre that emerged in Jamaica as a form of resistance to colonialism. The inclusion of reggae music in the film highlights the multicultural nature of the skinheads, rejecting the idea of a homogenous, racially pure national identity. The inclusion of diverse characters, including racial inclusivity, younger and older, male and female, also challenges to the idea of a homogenous nation.

The setting of the sequence against the backdrop of poverty and graffiti is significant as it highlights the the economic decline that permeated post-Thatcher Britain. The graffiti displays a protest against the established government order, reflecting a rejection of a traditional nationalist identity.

Narrative Analysis

The “fun with friends” sequence exemplifies the narrative structure of the film in multiple ways. Firstly, the use of montage and ellipses is significant as it compresses time and tells a story. The montage acts as chapter markers in the film, signalling the passage of time and the impending arrival of Combo. The film’s use of slow-motion and highly edited montage is a stark departure from Danny Boyle’s frenetic and hyper-kinetic camerawork in Trainspotting (1996).

Shaun’s acceptance into the surrogate family is a significant moment in the film’s narrative structure. It is a turning point for Shaun, who is fatherless and struggling to fit in with his schoolmates. Shaun’s acceptance into the family highlights the importance of chosen family and the rejection of traditional nuclear family structures. The innocence of the characters is also significant as it juxtaposes their thuggish exterior. The playful and supportive nature of the characters highlights their vulnerability and the importance of emotional support.

This Is England Close-Up (Opening Sequence)

Overview

The opening sequence of This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007) is a montage that establishes the setting and time period, the Midlands in 1983, while also showcasing the UK’s social issues and pop culture of the time. It opens with a montage made up of documentary newsreel footage accompanied by a soul soundtrack, before transitioning into linear editing that introduces the protagonist, Shaun. The sequence sets the stage for the film’s exploration of the skinhead subculture and its evolution into a racially divided movement.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Nationalist

The opening sequence of This is England introduces the anti-nationalist ideological critical approach that the film adheres to. Meadows uses a montage of UK issues and pop culture to highlight the economic and social issues of the time. The use of soul music, a genre rooted in African American culture, creates a juxtaposition with the violent imagery on screen, highlighting the inherent contradictions in the skinhead movement. The skinhead counter-culture is shown to be heavily influenced by reggae music, which further emphasizes the subculture’s appropriation of black culture.

The opening montage draws particular attention to the Margaret Thatcher government and the rise of far-right politics in England. This included groups such as the National Front, a political party known for its racist rhetoric and violent actions, briefly displayed in the opening montage. The montage also showcases working-class resentment towards Thatcher and her controversial policies, involving the embrace of capitalism and shutting down coal mines. The montage’s display of the Iranian embassy hostage crisis and the British government’s decision to send in the SAS highlights the brutality of the time period.

Meadows’ intentions are to critique the nationalism and xenophobia of the skinhead movement. The juxtaposition of racially-driven violence with African American music challenges the skinheads’ claim to being a British nationalist movement. The effect on the audience is to question the validity of the skinheads’ ideology and to create an emotional distance from the characters.

Narrative Analysis

The opening sequence of This is England exemplifies the film’s linear narrative structure. The use of montage and documentary newsreel footage creates a sense of historical context and setting that is important to understanding the film’s story and characters. The linear editing that follows introduces the protagonist, Shaun, and establishes his life as a consequence of the events depicted in the opening montage. Meadows’ intention is to create a sense of cause-and-effect that underpins the film’s narrative structure. In effect, this creates a sense of inevitability and to emphasise the role of history in shaping the lives of the characters. The use of music and imagery in the opening sequence also foreshadows the conflicts and divisions that will drive the film’s narrative forward.

Trainspotting Close-Up (Closing Sequence)

Overview

The closing sequence of Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) is a powerful and thought-provoking scene that brings the story and characters to a satisfying conclusion. It follows the character of Renton as he makes the decision to steal the money that he and his friends had intended to split evenly. Renton’s final monologue mirrors the opening “choose life” monologue, but Renton instead rejects hedonism and embraces capitalism.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Capitalist

The closing sequence of Trainspotting serves to showcase Renton’s rejection of nihilism. Renton’s decision to steal the money represents the inevitable embrace of a capitalist system, suggesting that he is finally leaving his life of hedonism. Renton ultimately “chooses life” by taking the money for himself, realising that hedonism does not lead to true fulfilment in life. He pledges to begin living a disciplined life, stating that “I’m gonna be just like you.”. This encourages the audience to challenge their assumptions and encourage them to question the status quo.

Narrative Analysis

Renton’s final monologue mirrors the opening monologue, following a similar rhythm and cadence. This creates a sense of closure and resolution, bringing the narrative back full circle. The focus pull away from Renton at the end of the sequence reinforces this sense of closure, as he walks off into the distance and the camera moves away from him. The confessional remarks in the narration suggest that Renton has learned something from his experiences and has rejected nihilism in favor of a more practical and grounded worldview. This has the effect of providing the viewer with a sense of narrative satisfaction, as the story has reached a logical and emotionally satisfying conclusion.

Trainspotting Close-Up (“London Montage” Sequence)

Overview

The ‘London Montage’ sequence in Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) comes at a pivotal moment in the story. The montage is a rapid-cutting sequence that signals a change in time and location, signalling Renton’s move from his hometown of Edinburgh to London. This sequence serves as a visual embodiment of the film’s central themes, particularly its criticism of capitalist society. It also marks a significant turning point in the narrative, as Renton has left his old lifestyle behind and is forced to confront the realities of a new world.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Capitalist

The ‘London Montage’ sequence is rife with examples of an anti-capitalist ideology. The use of handheld consumer-grade footage and home video footage of tourism highlights the shift from a cinematic to a more personal and everyday perspective, symbolising a break from the mainstream. This change in film stock also adds a rawness to the sequence that adds to its authenticity.

The sequence’s cliched sights of London, including Tower Bridge, ice cream, pigeons, and Piccadilly Circus, all represent the superficiality of the city’s supposed capitalist agenda. The montage serves as a visual embodiment of the “choose life” monologue, demonstrating the emptiness of consumerism and conformity. We can infer that Boyle’s intentions were to criticise capitalist society by showcasing its inherent superficiality and emptiness. The effect on the audience is profound, as it highlights the dangers of blindly following a capitalist agenda.

The sequence’s most interesting and insightful example is that it demonstrates that despite the fact that Renton has left his old lifestyle behind, he is still trapped in a similar vicious circle. Irony is created from the fact that that while Renton has escaped from the drug den, he has entered into a new realm of capitalism and consumerism by becoming an estate agent, that is just as dangerous in his eyes. This highlights the film’s themes, demonstrating that societal problems are not isolated issues but are instead interconnected. Boyle intended to illustrate that these problems are systemic and cannot be solved by a simple change of scenery. In effect, this reinforces the film’s central message of anti-capitalism, challenging them to question their values and their place in society.

Narrative Analysis

The ‘London Montage’ sequence also exemplifies the film’s narrative structure. The use of the non-diegetic compiled score, electronic dance music exemplary the 1990s, is a prime example. This score starkly juxtaposes the retro ‘70s soundtrack of the first half of the film, signalling a change in location and society.

The sequence provides a notable turning point in the film, marking the second act’s beginning. The modern metropolis of London contrasts sharply with the Scottish landscapes seen earlier in the film, representing Renton’s new life and the challenges that come with it. The use of the montage technique conveys a sense of time compression, emphasising the overwhelming speed of change in Renton’s life.

Trainspotting Close-Up (Opening Sequence)

Overview

Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) opens with a fast paced frenetic sequence, beginning in medias res. We follow our main protagonist, Mark Renton, running through the streets of Edinburgh as he and Spud are pursued by the authorities. Alongside the pair, the sequence also serves to introduce the viewer to the five main characters and establish the blistering fast pace and spirited, playful tone that pervades the film.

Ideological Analysis: Anti-Capitalist

The opening sequence of Trainspotting exemplifies the anti-capitalist ideology that the film adheres to. The non-diegetic compiled score, Lust for Life by Iggy Pop aptly represents the punk movement of the 1970s and ‘80s, which rejected the oppressive forces of capitalism and consumerism. The lyrics of the song also glorify living life to the fullest, which is accompanied by scenes Sick Boy taking heroin. The rapid editing and frenetic camerawork also reinforces the characters’ embrace of hedonism, linking to an anti-capitalist ideology.

The implementation of Renton’s non-diegetic, poetic narration is another significant aspect of the film that supports an anti-capitalist ideology. The iconic “choose life” monologue provides a counter-culture message, rejecting societal norms and expectations, and instead glorifying the characters’ alternative lifestyles. This opening scene appeals to young defiant individuals, representing the liberal zeitgeist of the 1990s. The mise-en-scène within the drug den is notably heightened and exaggerated, reinforcing the effects of drug use and addiction in a negative light, with the setting’s roots existing in British social realism. The use of colours and lighting further supports the anti-capitalist ideology by depicting the characters’ poverty and bleak existence.

Danny Boyle aptly depicts the harsh realities of life for the working-class in Edinburgh during this opening sequence, criticising the consumerist society that perpetuates drug addiction and poverty. This encourages the audience empathise with the characters’ struggles, causing the spectator to question the capitalist system that creates such inequalities.

Narrative Analysis

The opening sequence of Trainspotting exemplifies the loose, nonlinear narrative structure of the film in several ways. The use of jump cuts during the football training scenes is an example of ellipsis, which compresses time and moves the narrative forward. This contributes to the film’s breakneck pace, immersing the viewer within the hedonistic world that the characters live in. The setting of the Edinburgh streets, football pitch, and drug den are simultaneously familiar yet also provide an enigmatic, grungy aesthetic that appeals to the audience.

The narrative has a flowing quality, with no pauses between scenes, with the non-diegetic narration serving to bridge the sequences together, providing a rhythmic and expressive sequencing. The film employs an ensemble cast, with each character being interesting in their own right. Boyle employs title cards and freeze frames to introduce us to each character, also allowing the viewer a brief release from the tumultuous events being portrayed on screen. The fourth wall is also briefly broken when Renton looks at the camera through the windshield, subtly acknowledging both the driver and the viewer. Through this, narrative drive is created as the viewer is enthralled by the actions of the characters. When Renton is hit by the ball, an action match is implemented that displays him falling to the ground after smoking a cigarette. This action match creates a light-hearted juxtaposition – the exhilarating camerawork is highly appealing to view, further immersing the audience in the frenzied world of Trainspotting. Sick Boy makes reference to multiple James Bond films – a seminal hallmark of British pop culture that appeals to a British audience.

The use of expressive filmmaking techniques, such as the comically jagged wooden boards to metaphorically portray Renton’s isolation, further enhances the narrative drive of the film. The non-diegetic compiled classical score – Habanera by Georges Bizet – comically enhances Renton’s struggles. Boyle’s depiction of the working-class youth in Edinburgh enables the exploration of themes such as addiction, poverty, and the rejection of societal norms. In effect, this encourages the audience to instantly become engrossed in their stories, whilst empathising with the characters, ultimately creating a sense of emotional engagement that propels the narrative forward.

Narrative Hodge-Podge

Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996)

Narrative

The narrative structure of Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) is highly unconventional, reflecting the fragmented lives of the characters and the chaos of their drug-fueled existence.

The viewer is immediately thrown into the chaos of the story, with the film beginning in medias res with a cold open. This nonlinear immersion places the viewer halfway through the story, immediately engaging them within the action. The film opens with an iconic song from the 1970s: “Lust for Life” by Iggy Pop, which captures the frenetic atmosphere of the scene. The song also serves as a defining soundtrack for the cast’s youth, immersing the viewer within the exuberant camaraderie of the characters. The opening scene takes place in a mundane, familiar British high street, providing a sense of instant familiarity for the viewer. The narrative is aided by Renton’s iconic omniscient narration, beginning with his “choose life” monologue. Renton speaks with hindsight from a retrospective viewpoint, assisting the viewer in understanding the story.

The film introduces the five main characters: Renton, Sick Boy, Begbie, Spud, and Tommy, using freeze frames and intertitles to draw the viewer’s attention to each of the main cast. Renton is characterised as a charismatic protagonist by being, thin, attractive, and verbally articulate, making him a highly appealing character to follow. Boyle employs rapid cuts between brief vignettes set in different locations, that serve to heighten the energy and pacing of the opening sequence. Motion match is also implemented, an example being when Renton falls on the football field, which is matched with Renton falling in the apartment after taking heroin, naturally connecting the different scenes together in the viewer’s mind.

In the drug den, the baby is framed within a frame in a low-angle shot, alone. This plants an enigma code in the viewer’s mind, serving to foreshadow the baby’s death later in the film. A technique typical of Danny Boyle’s involves keeping the camera in constant motion, contributing to the frantic pace of the narrative. The squalid atmosphere of the den is juxtaposed with frenetic, playful pacing. The non-diegetic compiled score also reinforces the narrative drive, such as when “Lust for Life” continues to play while Sick Boy discusses the pleasure of taking heroin.

The film’s dialogue is notably comedic in nature, despite the fact that it deals with serious subject matter. The screenplay also has a poetic quality, taking a joy in figurative language, linking back to Irvine Welsh’s source material. The images also serve to support the narration, an example being when the sudden cut to Begbie dismissing drugs, which is playfully ironic due to the fact that he is seen to drink and smoke. As the soundtrack dissipates, the diegetic ambience of the dialogue rises. At this point, the narrative is conveyed in a much more traditional manner during the scene when Mark attempts to get “off the skag”, maintaining a constant flow between diegetic and non-diegetic narrative drive.

Boyle implements figurative filmmaking techniques during the scene when Mark locks himself away in his room. Utilising exaggerated mise-en-scène such as when Renton nails the wood to the door in a cross shape, Boyle draws upon familiar cartoon imagery to reinforce Renton’s isolation. Georges Bizet’s famous Habanera aria to create a sense of irony by utilising this piece of non-diegetic classical music in a comical fashion.

Boyle uses the intertitle “the worst toilet in Scotland” to introduce us to a surrealist sequence. This use of an intertitle is notably unorthodox and risky, as it has the potential to disrupt the flow of the film. However, the intertitle suits the light-hearted tone of the film, and allows for a brief interlude from the film’s blistering pace. The toilet itself is theatrically repulsive, expressively displaying Renton’s distraught state of mind – the non-diegetic Habanera piece also re-enters at this point. We then enter a highly surreal sequence in which Renton dives into the toilet and swims into the depths, in search of his suppositories. Brian Eno’s non-diegetic compiled score, Deep Blue Day, bolsters the expressive embellishment of Renton’s psyche.

During the park scene, the audience is positioned to support Renton and Sick Boy, as they are framed in closeup, while everyone else in the park is framed in a wide shot. Jarring editing is employed during Spud’s interview between wide and long shots, creating a sense of disorientation to heighten the chaos of the interview. In the pub, the freeze frame of Begbie concentrates the viewer on the importance of the moment, reinforcing it as a defining moment in Begbie’s characterisation. The narration also assists the narrative during this point, initiating the story of Renton stealing the videotape as Tommy recounts his viewpoint of Begbie’s violent interaction during the pool game. Each sequence naturally flows into the next, with significant use of ellipsis, time manipulation, and temporal editing implemented to achieve this.

The interior of the rave is reminiscent of A Clockwork Orange’s (Stanley Kubrick, 1971) milk bar, being an example of postmodernism that links to the stylistic aesthetic of the film. The use of subtitles burned onto the screen during Tommy and Renton’s conversation highlights the importance of the poetic dialogue that must be heard in order to comprehend the film. The only correctly capitalised word is Iggy Pop – highlighting his importance to the characters. Trainspotting also briefly draws on postmodernism during this scene, with a Taxi Driver poster behind Renton, and an introduction to Diane that is reminiscent of Ilsa’s introduction in Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942). During Diane’s dialogue, there is a juxtaposition between the poetic literary dialogue and the reality of the situation, which adds a layer of artifice on top of reality.

The film features parallel editing during a sequence which details each of the three men’s sexual encounters, with visceral depictions of each. The mountain interlude sedates the pace of the film, during which traditional camerawork is employed. Afterwards, we return to the drug den during which the scene is cut in time with the non-diegetic compiled score. The film’s stylised, choreographed movements and blocking during the scene where the characters beat up an American man is an example of expressive filmmaking.

During the scene when Alison discovers the dead baby, the score lowers in the mix as her diegetic screaming enters the mix, alongside the implementation of a blue colour palette that reinforces the seriousness of the situation. The baby’s death marks a turning point in the tone of the film – it signals the decline of hedonism.

A particularly memorable scene in the film is Renton’s final hit, which leads him to overdose. The scene is filmed with tight closeups that are created as the camera pushes in towards Renton, creating a sense of anticipation and claustrophobia. The viewer is forced to watch the graphic intravenous procedure of a heroin injection, which is uncomfortable yet compelling. This scene sparked controversy with the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) due to the fact that this scene could be argued to convey instructional heroin usage, leading to a debate about the film’s intentions. In response, Boyle argued that the film did not glorify the use of drugs at all, instead deterring audiences from taking such dangerous substances.

Renton sinking into the carpet after overdosing on heroin is an example of expressive filmmaking, embellishing the effects the drugs are taking. Irony is created with the implementation of the non-diegetic compiled score – Lou Reed’s “Perfect Day,” which simultaneously references Sick Boy’s mention of Reed’s solo career earlier in the film. The overdose sequence is also a masterclass in surrealist filmmaking. The otherworldly imagery is heightened and hyperbolised, making the viewer feel like they are experiencing Renton’s trip alongside him. The perspective shift makes Renton’s room feel impossibly long, adding to the disorienting effect of the sequence. This is a masterful example of how Trainspotting uses narrative to convey a character’s distraught mental state.

The London montage serves the purpose of conveying a shift in location. The montage shows stereotypical images of London, such as red buses, black taxis, policemen, tourists, ice creams, and the Piccadilly Circus sign. The upbeat electronic dance music represents the contemporary music of the ‘90s, juxtaposing the retro soundtrack of the earlier portion of the film, thus conveying a shift in lifestyle. As we are introduced to Renton’s new abode, the lyrics of the song “Mile End” by Pulp is reflect the images on screen, creating a sense of unity between the visual and aural elements of the film. This is a powerful way of conveying narrative and emotion simultaneously, propelling the film’s narrative drive through the use of carefully selected non-diegetic composed score.

Ideology

Trainspotting is also notable for its ideological substance, which can be best underpinned by the characters’ anti-capitalist attitudes. Renton’s opening “choose life” monologue serves to establish the film’s anti-capitalist ideology, in which Renton mocks the Scottish anti-drug mantra, establishing an inherent rejection of middle-class aspirations and ideals. Renton’s famous line “I chose something else. And the reasons? There are no reasons.” exemplifies this rejection of standard life choices and the embrace of unorthodox, hedonistic means – a central theme of the film. Renton’s monologue in the mountains about being Scottish also exemplifies a nihilist ideology that rejects any sense of national or cultural identity.

However, as the film progresses, Renton ultimately ends up embracing capitalist ideals. This is a commentary on how even those who reject mainstream ideals and try to live outside the system can ultimately be pulled back in. The ending sequence of the film displays the opening monologue coming full circle, with Renton embracing a capitalist ideology, “choosing life” by taking the money for himself. Ultimately, Renton realises that hedonism does not lead to true fulfilment in life, with Renton pledging to begin living a disciplined life, stating that “I’m gonna be just like you.”

This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007)

Narrative

The opening sequence of the film greatly contrasts that of Trainspotting’s – a highly edited, fast paced chase sequence beginning in medias res. This is England instead opens with a montage that displays news and current affairs of the 1980s. This use of archival footage establishes the time, place, and mood, aptly rooting the story in the time period. The first clip is of Roland Rat, the children’s mascot of Channel 4, being representative of a diverse variety of niches that were growing in notoriety on television. The montage also includes imagery that displays seminal hallmarks of the 1980s, including Rubik’s cubes, computers, CDs, Knight Rider, and space raiders. In addition, the footage highlights societal conflicts including miner strikes, far-right marches, National Front activities and the Falkland Islands war. The houses that are displayed in Shaun’s town are emblematic of the new housing scheme that the British government devised after homes were destroyed in the wake of WW2. The impoverished state of living resulted in replacing the slums with modern housing, leading to a rise in ‘council estates’.

The film largely follows a linear structure, meaning that the plot and story run in parallel. This narrative structure allows Meadows to compress time using ellipses thorough the use of montage, initially used to showcase the mundane aspects of Shaun’s life – bike riding, car cleaning, catapulting, etc. This characterises Shaun as a young boy who seeks a sense of belonging and acceptance. We are then introduced to the skinheads who take Shaun under their wing, acting as a surrogate family for him, most notably Woody serving as a father figure. Shane Meadows subverts the viewers’ preconceptions of skinhead culture by portraying the group as innocent and friendly through the use of montage – activities such as jumping in puddles and swimming develop the camaraderie between Shaun and the skinheads.

However, the narrative undergoes a pivotal turning point during Combo’s introduction – the definitive antagonist who shares parallels with Begbie from Trainspotting. Combo’s racist ideologies are hinted at during his recount of a prison story, during which the highly manipulative non-diegetic piano score by Ludovico Einaudi is implemented to create a sense of discomfort and unease. The camera is also tightly focused in a closeup on Combo’s face, reinforcing this. This scene marks the film’s first head-on confrontation with racism, with Combo’s unflinching use of racial epithets being dually repulsive and threatening. Combo is further characterised as a three-dimensional antagonist with a subtextual backstory being alluded to at points throughout the film. He is a tragic victim of 1980s society, having been given a prison tern at a young age, hoping for reconciliation with Lol after his release.

The film’s climax centres around the confrontation between Combo and Milky, highlighting the racial violence and emotional weight the film has been building towards. The confrontation arises due to Combo being angered by Milky’s alleged privileges over him, with Einaudi’s manipulative score being implemented once again to bolster the emotional weight of the scene. The violence is raw and unflinching, despite not being particularly gory. The camera also does note cut away from the violence, forcing the viewer to confront Combo’s repugnant actions.

The montage of newsreel footage at the end of the film mirrors the opening sequence. The footage displays the soldiers’ return at the end of the Falklands war, highlighting the film’s themes of belonging, violence and societal change.

Ideology

This is England is a film highly concerned with ideological underpinnings, most notably that of an anti-nationalist focus. The opening montage made up of archival footage draws particular attention to the Margaret Thatcher government and the rise of far-right politics in England. This included groups such as the National Front, a political party known for its racist rhetoric and violent actions, briefly displayed in the opening montage. The montage also showcases working-class resentment towards Thatcher and her controversial policies, involving the embrace of capitalism and shutting down coal mines. The montage’s display of the Iranian embassy hostage crisis and the British government’s decision to send in the SAS highlights the brutality of the time period.

The film’s portrayal of skinhead culture also closely links to its anti-capitalist agenda. The skinhead movement initially had its roots in African American culture – particularly through the movement’s shared interest in reggae and soul music. However, the film depicts how the movement was gradually infected by nationalism and racist, stemming from impoverished people who scapegoated foreigners for the poverty-stricken society of the 1980s.

This idea is primary explored through the character of Combo, whose sinister ideals are slowly revealed to the viewer during his recount of a prison story. He later indoctrinates Shaun under his command, radicalising his views to match his own nationalist agenda. His extremist views also create a rift within the skinhead group, driving Woody, Lol, and Milky away. These three represent the inclusive skinhead movement, banding together due to shared cultural interests. The film also distinguishes the fine line between political viewpoints and racially-driven hatred, as many viewers will unwillingly resonate with Combo’s monologue about Thatcherist policies. Combo instead assigns the blame towards foreigners as an easy scapegoat.

During the closing sequence, Shane Meadows subtly questions the value of patriotism and the cost of human lives during the display of the end of the Falklands War. The montage of archival footage showcases the prisoners of war appearing to be unarmed and untrained, raising questions about the true value of warfare victory. The film’s final scene perhaps best underpins a rejection of nationalism when Shaun throws the England flag, Saint George’s Cross, into the sea. This symbolically highlights Shaun’s rejection of a nationalist ideology.

This Is England Contextualised

This Is England (Shane Meadows, 2006) is a British drama film that explores the culture of skinhead movement in England during the early 1980s. The film received critical acclaim and won the Best British Independent Film award at the 2006 British Independent Film Awards.

The film’s director, Shane Meadows, is a filmmaker from Nottingham who emerged during the 1990s during a period when regional arts funding was available – allowing him to collaborate with like-minded filmmakers and develop a handful of short films. Meadows released his first feature length film, TwentyFourSeven (1997), a piece rooted in kitchen sink realism and cinéma vérité – film movements that are defined by the showcase of the struggles of working-class lives of young individuals. Meadows’ narratives share concerns with these movements, touching upon similar subject matters, locations, and themes.

Throughout his filmography, Meadows often casts non-professional actors. In This is England, the most notable example of this is Thomas Turgoose who plays Shaun. At the time, Turgoose was a 13 year old boy who had never acted before, being banned from his school’s play due to bad behaviour. This serves to reinforce the gritty, realist tone that Meadows strives for within his body of work. When developing a screenplay, Meadows will typically write the foundations of the dialogue, before encouraging the actors to improvise during a rehearsals. Through this, the dialogue becomes fully realised and an extra layer of authenticity is also added during this process.

Shane Meadows

This is England was shot on location in the midlands, predominantly in Nottingham. However, Meadows filmed the scenes that displayed the town’s docks in Grimsby, making the setting more ambiguous. To reinforce this, the characters accents are also particularly eclectic. For example, while Woody and Gadget have a Lancashire accent, Combo, on the other hand, has a highly distinctive Scouse accent. The film’s aesthetic can be characterised by a mix of gritty realism and stylised cinematography that contribute to the film’s roots in kitchen sink realism. Meadows use of a handheld camera alongside natural lighting give the film a raw, documentary-style feel. The film’s compiled soundtrack also features a mix of classic reggae and punk songs that were popular with the skinhead subculture that the film explores.

The unnamed town’s docks, shot on location in Grimsby

The film portrays the skinhead subculture as a diverse movement that includes both racist and non-racist factions, with Shaun becoming involved within the cultures of both groups. The film also explores the impact of racism on the skinhead movement and how it led to the rise of far-right extremist groups in England. Throughout the film, the rise of far-right extremism in England is critiqued, alongside the indoctrination of these beliefs onto the youth. Shane Meadows has even cited his own personal experience with the skinhead movement as inspiration for the film. This Is England was followed by a television series of the same name, airing in 2010 and set from 1986-1990. The series continued the story of the characters, concluding in 2015.

This is England ‘88

Trainspotting Contextualised

Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) is an adaptation of the 1993 novel of the same name by Irvine Welsh. The film is a product of the filmmaking collaboration made up of producer Andrew Macdonald, writer John Hodge, director Danny Boyle, and actor Ewan McGregor. The film was both a critical and commercial success, being nominated for two BAFTAs – Best British Film and Best Adapted Screenplay, winning the latter.

After realising their debut film Shallow Grave (1994), Andrew Macdonald spoke to Danny Boyle about the prospect of making Welsh’s book into a film after reading it on a plane in December 1993. Boyle was instantly enamoured by the book, excited by its potential to be the “most energetic film you’ve ever seen”. After reading the book, John Hodge set a goal to produce a screenplay that would have a clear three-act structure, lasting 90 minutes whilst also capturing the essence of the novel. Irvine Welsh was impressed that the trio wanted everyone to see the film, rather than just “the arthouse audience”.

The Trainspotting collaboration:
Ewan McGregor (stars as Mark Renton), Andrew Macdonald (producer), Danny Boyle (director), Irvine Welsh (author), and John Hodge (writer)

Trainspotting was released during a time of significant social and cultural change in Britain. The 1990s were characterised by the rise of youth culture and the emergence of new subcultures, as well as the growing problem of drug addiction, especially heroin. Trainspotting captures the zeitgeist of this period and instantly became a cultural touchstone for many young people undergoing similar struggles. The film also rejects consumerist values promoted by the Thatcher government, for example during Renton’s famous opening declaration: “Choose life. Choose a job. Choose a career. Choose a family. Choose a fucking big television”.

A still from the opening of Trainspotting

The film has a notably distinctive visual style, typical of Danny Boyle’s eclectic body of work. Throughout the film, Boyle implements techniques such as freeze frames, jump cuts, and handheld camera work to create a dynamic aesthetic that captures the frenetic lives of the characters. The film’s non-diegetic composed score also serves as particularly prominent contribution to the film’s aesthetic. The film’s mix of electronic music and classic rock creates a heightened sense of energy, reflecting the emotions of the characters.,

Trainspotting’s narrative structure is also particularly noteworthy, being a series of non-chronological vignettes that reflect the narrative structure of Irvine Welsh’s original novel. The film also utilises surreal, dreamlike imagery at certain points, such as during the scene when Mark dives into the “worst toilet in Scotland” in search of his suppositories, serving to reinforce his desperation and degeneration as a drug addict.

Mark dives into the toilet in an attempt to reclaim his suppositories

This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007)

This Is England (Shane Meadows, 2007) is a British social drama film. Set in 1983, the film explores themes of youth, race, and national identity within Britain during this time period. The film follows the story of a troubled 12-year-old boy named Shaun, who is struggling to come to terms with the recent loss of his father, who we later learn died in the Falklands War. After being bullied at school, Shaun befriends a group of skinheads led by Woody, who show compassion and sympathy towards Shaun, inviting him into their gang. However, after the arrival of Woody’s friend Combo – a man driven by nationalistic and racist views – Shaun is gradually drawn towards into a world of violence and extremism, ultimately leading to a tragic conclusion.

Shaun (Thomas Turgoose) is taken under the wing of a skinhead gang

Shane Meadows, the director of This Is England, is a critically acclaimed filmmaker known for his gritty style that has its roots embedded within the kitchen sink realism movement of the 1960s. His films typically focus on working-class characters through which issues such as identity and social exclusion are explored. Meadows has won numerous awards for his films, including a BAFTA for This Is England.

The film is widely regarded as a significant film in British cinema history, being praised for its raw, moving portrayal of nationalistic indoctrination. The themes explored by the film still ring true, with issues such as nationalism and racism unfortunately pervading the country to this day.

The film’s narrative is structured in a linear fashion, with a clear three-act structure. Throughout the film, Meadows employs a range of techniques to convey information to the audience, such as documentary-style stock footage of real events from the time period, such as the Falklands War and the riots in Brixton.

Personally, I found This Is England to be a powerful and moving film that enthralled me from beginning to end. The performances from the cast are particularly compelling and believable, most notably Stephen Graham as Combo. My only real problem with the film was the final scene in which Shaun throws the flag into the ocean, which I felt was a little on-the-nose and offered a slightly unsatisfying conclusion to the film. Despite this, the film is both thought-provoking and enthralling throughout

Overall, I would rate This Is England ★★★★.

Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996)

Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996) is a British black comedy-drama film that depicts a gritty and intense portrayal of the Edinburgh drug scene. It is based on the novel of the same name by Irvine Welsh, which follows the lives of a group of young heroin addicts as they navigate the highs and lows of addiction, friendship, and betrayal.

Sick Boy, Renton, Tommy, and Spud

We follow our protagonist, Mark Renton, a young man struggling with addiction, who is trying to break free from his destructive lifestyle. Alongside his friends Spud, Sick Boy, Begbie, and Tommy, Mark gradually falls deeper into the abyss of addiction, with each character facing their own struggles along the way.

The director, Danny Boyle, made Trainspotting on a shoestring budget alongside writer John Hodge and producer Andrew Macdonald. Despite this, the film went on to become an instant cult classic and a seminal piece of British 90s cinema. Its raw and unflinching portrayal of addiction and poverty struck a chord with audiences worldwide, and it remains a landmark film to this day.

Throughout the film, Danny Boyle implemented a variety of techniques to convey the narrative to the viewer. Including fast-paced editing, surreal imagery, and a pulsating soundtrack, these techniques coalesce to create an otherworldly atmosphere within the genre of social realism. The narrative is also structured in a nonlinear fashion, with Renton’s past and present intertwined, creating a sense of disorientation that mirrors the characters’ own confusion and despair.

I was enamoured by the film’s bleak portrayal of drug addiction and empathised with the tumultuous events experienced by the characters. The performances were particularly noteworthy, with Ewan McGregor in particular delivering a charismatic portrayal of Mark Renton. The film also makes use of a prominent non-diegetic compiled score, with Iggy Pop’s “Lust for Life” being used during the opening sequence to contribute the film’s frantic energy and emotional impact.

While the film’s unrelenting darkness and despair were overwhelming at times, its powerful performances and striking visuals made Trainspotting a truly memorable cinematic experience. Ultimately, the film is a cautionary tale about the dangers of addiction and the psychological, social, and financial toll it can take upon us.

Overall, I would give Trainspotting ★★★★.

Component 1c: British Film Since 1995

The final component we are studying is Component 1c: British Film Since 1995. This section of the course entails two films of study, Trainspotting (Danny Boyle, 1996), and This is England (Shane Meadows, 2007). Throughout this component, the areas of study are the core study areas (including the key elements, contexts, aesthetics and representation) as well as two specialist study areas that have been previously studied– Ideology and Narrative. This component also involves a direct comparison between the two studied films, akin to Component 1a and 1b.

Component 1c mind map

Component 1b: US Film Since 2005 (Spectatorship)

Explore how far the two films you have studied demonstrate the filmmakers’ attempt to control the spectator’s response.

Autumn 2020

Plan:

Introduction

Throughout both Winter’s Bone (Debra Granik, 2010) and No Country For Old Men (Joel and Ethan Coen, 2007), the respective filmmakers persistently attempt to control the spectator’s response in a variety of faceted means. Winter’s Bone implements audience positioning in ways that attempt to elicit empathy within the viewer towards the protagonist, Ree, and her struggles within an oppressive patriarchal society. Granik claims that it is “a feminist film about an anti-feminist world”, implying that the preferred reading is one in which the viewer is encouraged to support Ree’s actions throughout the film. Conversely, the Coen brothers set out to actively subvert the spectator’s preconceptions of narrative in No Country For Old Men, by encoding the film with an ambiguous thematic substance, challenging the spectator’s morals and ideologies. A passive spectator would even perhaps argue that the film is ‘unsatisfying’, as it does not conform to the conventions of a traditional narrative.

Body

Winter’s Bone – incites empathy within the viewer towards the characters, under the context of feminism

• Preferred reading – empathising with Ree as an empowered woman and her struggles against patriarchal oppression
• Negotiated reading – Ree’s actions are still immoral, despite being in a feminist world
• Active spectatorship and negotiated reading during ‘squirrel dream’ sequence. Audience’s own perception will interpret the dream to have a particular meaning – perhaps the squirrel is representative of Ree’s oppression
• Audience is positioned to view Teardrop as a symbol of toxic masculinity

No Country For Old Men – subverting audience’s preconceptions

• No traditional ‘face off’, the Sheriff is mostly uninvolved with the events of the film
• Preferred reading – siding with the Sheriff, sympathy with his disillusionment towards the senseless violence that permeates the state
• Fade to black at the end leaves the audience dwelling upon the sheriff’s dreams – symbolism of following his father into the grave
• Inevitable frustration towards the ‘unsatisfying’ conclusion – Llewelyn’s off-screen death
• Active spectatorship – pensive opening sequence, little to no dialogue. Introspective sheriff monologue – doesn’t drive the plot forward. Exemplifies the rejection of the hypodermic needle theory.
• The preconception of unconditionally supporting the protagonist’s actions is subverted when Llewelyn doesn’t give the man any water and instead takes the briefcase

• The motivations behind Anton’s ambiguous murders are to be inferred by the audience through active spectatorship – checking boots for blood after inferably killing Carla Jean, nihilistic coin flips

Conclusion

In conclusion, Winter’s Bone and No Country For Old Men use starkly contrasting methods in order to control the viewer’s response. Winter’s Bone predominately implements audience positioning in an attempt to incite empathy towards Ree and her struggles within an oppressive patriarchal society. Through the use of cinematography, mise-en-scène, sound, and dialogue, Granik encourages the spectator to support Ree’s actions. Conversely, No Country For Old Men subverts the spectator’s preconceptions of narrative conventions through the use of unorthodox narrative techniques alongside an inherently ambiguous thematic tapestry. The Coen brothers encourage active spectatorship to be exercised throughout, allowing for layered meanings of the film to be deciphered. Both films aptly demonstrate the power filmmakers possess towards shaping how a spectator responds to a film.

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Essay – Version 1

Throughout both Winter’s Bone (Debra Granik, 2010) and No Country For Old Men (Joel and Ethan Coen, 2007), the respective filmmakers persistently attempt to control the spectator’s response in a variety of faceted means. Winter’s Bone implements audience positioning in ways that attempt to elicit empathy within the viewer towards the protagonist, Ree, and her struggles within an oppressive patriarchal society. Granik claims that the film is “a feminist film about an anti-feminist world”, implying that the preferred reading is one in which the viewer is encouraged to support Ree’s actions throughout the film. Conversely, the Coen brothers set out to actively subvert the spectator’s preconceptions of narrative in No Country For Old Men, by encoding the film with an ambiguous thematic substance, challenging the spectator’s morals and ideologies. A passive spectator would even perhaps argue that the film is ‘unsatisfying’, as it does not conform to the conventions of a traditional narrative.

During the opening sequence of Winter’s Bone, the viewer is immediately encouraged to emphasise with Ree‘s struggles in an impoverished and oppressive patriarchy. The film opens with a non-diegetic lullaby, immediately connoting a sense of intimate maternity. Cutting to a wide shot, the children are framed behind the bars of a bed-frame — implying to the viewer that they are trapped within their environment. This opening sequence also conveys the cyclical nature of nurturing – Ree’s sister, Ashlee takes care of her toy kitten, implying the idea that she herself has been nurtured by Ree. Mise-en-scène is also implemented within the domestic landscape, being littered with waste and abandoned items. This, alongside the characters clothing being ragged and humble, emphasises the poverty-stricken way of life Ree and her family leads, positioning the audience as to empathise with them.

Ree’s bravery and defiance within an oppressive patriarchy is also displayed to the spectator during the ‘cattle market’ sequence, during which Ree calls for Thump Milton at the top of her lungs. Milton is unable to comprehend her, further reinforcing the invisible yet prevalent divide between the male and female worlds. Alongside this, the non-diegetic composed score becomes discordant, creating a sense of urgency. It is layered in tandem with the cries of the cattle, creating a sensory overload which reflects Ree’s distraught state of mind. This is another example of audience positioning used in an attempt to control the spectator’s response – eliciting empathy towards Ree in this case.

An example of taking a negotiated reading by using active spectatorship occurs during the ‘squirrel dream’ sequence. During this sequence, Granik utilises unorthodox techniques such as black and white grainy footage filmed with a cheap handheld camera. Granik also implements a 4:3 aspect ratio, further contributing to the surreal nature of the sequence. A negotiated reading would argue that the squirrel in the sequence is perhaps a metaphor for Ree – as both are victims of a disrupted naturalistic environment. The danger faced by the squirrel is displayed through its shuddering fear, captured through the camera’s rapid and disorienting movements. A jarring diegetic chainsaw sound promptly enters the mix, perhaps being representative of the oppressive patriarchy that endangers Ree’s peaceful existence. A worms-eye-view shot of the trees is also used, displaying the squirrel, and by extension, Ree, as dwarfed, emphasizing her vulnerability within an oppressive patriarchal society. This reading is not explicitly conveyed by the film, but is instead only able to be inferred through active spectatorship. Each viewer will interpret this sequence in a slightly different way, exemplifying how this sequence is an example of Debra Granik attempting to control the spectator’s response.

Throughout the film, Ree’s uncle Teardrop is characterised in ways that illustrate him as a symbol of toxic masculinity – a notion that is able to be unravelled through active spectatorship. In the ‘squirrel gutting’ sequence, a focus pull is implemented to draw the spectator’s attention towards Teardrop as he approaches Ree. During their conversation, Teardrop offers some drugs to Ree, asking if she “has the taste for it yet”. Ree adamantly refuses, being indicative of her mental fortitude and purity that she possess over Teardrop, positioning the audience in a way that encourages the spectator to condemn Teardrop. In addition, during the closing sequence, Teardrop vows to seek revenge on the man that killed Ree’s father, reinforcing the cyclical nature of violence and highlighting the idea that Teardrop’s misguided sense of loyalty is a negative force, and that it is ultimately through the actions of women that the problems in the film are resolved. This further encourages the viewer to support Ree’s actions, framing Teardrop as a force of evil.

In contrast to Winter’s Bone’s attempts to control the spectator through the use of audience positioning which encourages the viewer to empathise with Ree, No Country For Old Men controls the viewer’s response by instead setting out to actively subvert the spectator’s preconceptions of narrative conventions, weaving an ambiguous thematic substance that pervades the film. Through this, active spectatorship is required to decipher a particular meaning from the Coen brothers’ enigmatic masterpiece.

The opening scene of the film immediately subverts the spectator’s expectations by beginning with a non-diegetic monologue delivered by Sheriff Ed Tom Bell. The monologue does not serve to provide exposition, but is instead an introspective monologue in which the sheriff reminisces upon the senselessly violent crimes that he has dealt with throughout his career. The viewer is left to question the meaning of this monologue, encouraged to become an active spectator by unravelling the themes of nihilism and determinism that the monologue touches upon. The preferred reading of the film is arguably for the viewer to side with the sheriff, sympathising with his disillusionment towards the nihilism that permeates Texas. This opening scene exemplifies the rejection of the hypodermic needle model which suggested that audiences were to blindly accept any messages presented within media.

Instead of being rewarded with a traditional showdown between the three main characters, the spectator’s expectations are instead subverted by the final scene of the film, with it being a pensive recount of the sheriff’s dreams. The Coens’ decision to end the film with an abrupt cut to black controls the viewer’s response in an interesting way – the spectator is forced to dwell upon the meanings of the sheriff’s dream as the credits roll. While a passive spectator would argue that this final scene is an unsatisfying conclusion to the film, an active spectator would perhaps argue that Ed Tom’s dream is symbolic of the sheriff following his father towards his impending demise.

No Country For Old Men also subverts the preconception of unconditionally supporting the protagonist’s actions during the first scene involving the character of Llewelyn Moss. During the scene, the viewer bears witness to Llewelyn’s selfish actions. He chooses to not give water to a dying man, instead taking the briefcase containing $2 million. Viewers are encouraged to employ active spectatorship – Llewelyn’s actions are arguably morally reprehensible and selfish, but this idea is not explicitly conveyed to the audience. Individual spectators are instead encouraged to decide whether or not Llewelyn’s actions are morally just.

The nature of Llewelyn’s death, being abrupt and offscreen, also serves as a means of controlling the spectator by subverting the their expectations. After a seemingly mundane and innocuous conversation between Llewelyn and a woman sitting in a pool takes place, the scene abruptly fades to black, before we cut to Sheriff Ed Tom Bell’s point of view. The Coens’ employ a POV shot of the sheriff running towards the crime during which camera shake is employed to heighten the tension. Ed Tom, however, is too late – the inevitable causality of death has already taken effect. The fact that Llewelyn is killed in such an unheroic manner by a group of characters we have never been introduced reinforces the futility of humanity, providing acute shock value for the viewer in which their response is controlled by the filmmakers.

Throughout the film, ruthless hitman Anton Chigurh commits a series of senseless, brutal murders in pursuit of the money-filled briefcase. However, Anton’s motivations that fuel his actions are highly ambiguous, choosing his victims seemingly at random, rather than just those who obstruct his aims. The meanings behind Anton’s actions are to be extracted by the viewer – by employing active spectatorship, the Coens encourage the viewer to uncover the truth behind Anton’s murders. During the ‘call it, friend-o’ sequence, Anton leaves a perfectly innocent man’s fate up to a 50/50 coin flip, perhaps reinforcing his nihilistic belief that human life is meaningless and arbitrary. After the owner argues that he didn’t put anything up to win on the coin flip, Anton informs the man that “you’ve been putting it up your whole life, you just didn’t know it”, suggesting that the end of the man’s meaningless existence has already been decided. Alongside this, during the closing sequence, it is implied that Anton does indeed kill Carla Jean. Using active spectatorship, the viewer is able insinuate that Carla is dead after Anton checks his shoes for blood – an action that he has performed many times over the course of the film. An implied reading of the scene argues that due to the fact that Carla did not let the coin decide her fate, Anton decides to end her life purely due to his belief in the insignificance of human life.

In conclusion, Winter’s Bone and No Country For Old Men use starkly contrasting methods in order to control the viewer’s response. Winter’s Bone predominately implements audience positioning in an attempt to incite empathy towards Ree and her struggles within an oppressive patriarchal society. Through the use of cinematography, mise-en-scène, sound, and dialogue, Granik encourages the spectator to support Ree’s actions to support her impoverished family. Conversely, No Country For Old Men subverts the spectator’s preconceptions of narrative conventions through the use of unorthodox narrative techniques alongside an inherently ambiguous thematic tapestry. The Coen brothers encourage active spectatorship to be exercised throughout, allowing for layered meanings of the film to be deciphered. Both films aptly demonstrate the power filmmakers possess towards shaping how a spectator responds to a film.

Bonnie And Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967)

Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) is a biographical neo-noir crime drama that follows the capers of the infamous crime duo: Bonnie Parker (Faye Dunaway) and Clyde Barrow (Warren Beatty). The film is arguably a landmark of the ‘New Hollywood’ era, epitomising the conventions offered by this new age after the decline of the studio system.

The titular couple meet after Clyde attempts to steal Bonnie’s mother’s car. The two quickly hit it off, and they soon become partners in crime – holding up banks for the thrill of it, despite their attempts being not particularly lucrative. The couple then recruit C.W. Moss, a petrol station attendant, as their getaway driver and later Clyde’s older brother Buck alongside his wife Blanche soon join the gang.

After a heist goes wrong, the gang flee to Missouri before they are located by the police. Two officers are killed in a shootout, and the gang also manages to take a police ranger, Frank Hamer, hostage whom the gang take photos with, before tying him to a boat and setting him free down the river.

A sudden raid catches the gang off guard, killing Buck and injuring Blanche’s eye – Bonnie, Clyde, and C.W. are barely able to escape themselves. The trio seek refuge at C.W.’s father’s house, who believe that the couple have corrupted his son after he sees a new tattoo on his chest that he decided to get after Bonnie’s suggestion. Seeing this, C.W.’s father strikes a deal with Hamer, allowing the police to trap Bonnie and Clyde in exchange for C.W.’s freedom. The film ends with the couple being mercilessly gunned down after being trapped by the police.

The film was directed by Arthur Penn, who set out to break the conventions of the Classical Hollywood style present throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood. Sex and graphic violence is openly depicted throughout the film, which is evident in Clyde’s ambiguous sexuality alongside the brutal violence portrayed in scenes such as the gang’s getaway and the brutal ending. The film was also influenced considerably by French New Wave cinema, which was typically characterised by rapid tonal shifts and experimental editing techniques.

Bonnie and Clyde’s narrative structure is linear, but utilises jarring time jumps to create a film with noticeably unorthodox pacing. I found this to be the main drawback of the film, as although the first third of the film is densely packed with lots of events edited in rapid succession, the film seems to ‘peter out’ afterwards with not much occurring until the very end of the film.

I did enjoy Bonnie and Clyde for the light-hearted crime it had to offer. The film’s implementation of unorthodox filmmaking techniques also kept me intrigued throughout. However, I didn’t feel much emotional attachment towards any of the characters, and the film’s peculiar pacing ultimately resulted in a disjointed narrative experience.

Overall, I would rate Bonnie and Clyde ★★★½.

Unconventional Auteur: Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942)

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) is a prime exemplar of the Warner Brothers ‘house style’ that the studio was famously regarded for. Involving the executives of the studio collaborating on each film together, this practice became known as a ‘studio auteur’ style of filmmaking, in which the creative output was a communal effort from the studio, rather than a single creative mind taking the reigns.

Although the director of Casablanca, Michael Curtiz cannot be considered as the sole creative mind behind the making of the film, his trailblazing directorial techniques must be made note of. Boasting a vast filmography of over 100 films, Curtiz honed his skills as a director particularly concerning the implementation of lighting to create a particular aesthetic. Curtiz expertly utilised main, back, and fill lighting to illuminate Ingrid Bergman in a highly flattering and glamorous manner. Ilsa dons a white costume, representative of her purity, and her eyes appear to glisten which serves to accentuate her beauty. Ingrid Bergman even requested to only be filmed from same angle, as she believed it showcased her best features. Conversely, Humphrey Bogart is predominantly shot in dimmer lighting which is emblematic of Rick’s ambiguous intentions. Lighting is used to draw attention to Bogart’s rugged and weathered face, starkly juxtaposing Ilsa’s radiant appearance and portraying him as the noble American protagonist.

A technique frequently employed by Curtiz throughout Casablanca involves pulling out the camera from a two-shot in order to reveal a third person in the frame. This is an example of efficient camerawork, in which the editing is able to naturally blend into the background, and the requirement for any potentially jarring cuts is alleviated. This aligns with the studio’s primary aim of foregrounding the narrative first and foremost. The camera movements throughout the film are also highly sophisticated and seamless. Within Rick’s café, the camera often appears to smoothly glide around the set in a manner reminiscent of a Steadicam, which wasn’t invented until 1974.

The dialogue throughout the film is fast paced, merely serving as exposition to drive the narrative forward. A clear example of this can be seen during the Paris flashback sequence, in which Rick and Ilsa’s dialogue succinctly and efficiently explains why the Nazis are invading France. The couple’s dialogue can also be considered highly melodramatic, which reflects the conventions of the romance genre that the film conforms to. The fast paced nature of the dialogue is perhaps best exemplified in the closing sequence of the film, in which a multiplicity of iconic lines, such as “we’ll always have Paris” are swiftly exchanged between Rick and Ilsa. During this, the couple are framed in a tight two-shot with a shallow depth of field, focusing the viewer’s attention exclusively towards the dialogue.

A tight two-shot of Rick and Ilsa from the final scene of Casablanca

Max Steiner, the film’s composer, also played a vital role within the ‘studio auteur’, serving to bolster the emotional weight of the narrative through the apt use of both diegetic and non-diegetic score. During the opening sequence, Steiner’s highly triumphant non-diegetic score enters the mix in a grandiose manner as the credits roll, which naturally segues into the French national anthem. This provides a twofold sense of international exoticism alongside patriotism. The film’s iconic theme – As Time Goes By – was also selected by Steiner to be played by Sam in Rick’s café, acting as a diegetic score. The particular 1931 jazz piece provides an appropriately sentimental and romantic evocation.

Executive producer Jack L. Warner’s name is the first to be credited in Casablanca, being indicative of his influence upon the production. Warner was an interventionist, and vehemently believed that America should join the war efforts in Europe. He is responsible for the war undertones that permeate throughout the entire film. Warner even rushed onstage at the 1943 Academy Awards to collect Casablanca Best Picture Oscar, to the dismay of producer Hal B. Wallis. This demonstrates the contention concerning the film’s true ownership, which was ambiguous due to the ‘studio auteur’ environment that the film was conceived under.

Classical Hollywood Style

Throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood, a distinctive style of filmmaking was birthed under the control of the studio system. Being produced between the 1930-1960s, the filmmakers aptly utilised each of the key elements of film form in order to augment the emotional weight of the narrative being told.

The films produced throughout this era often shared a handful of common narrative conventions. These included a psychologically defined individual who is caught in a struggle to solve a problem or achieve their goals. There is usually a conflict between this central protagonist and other external circumstances, before resulting in a clear-cut victory or defeat at the end of the film.

This narrative-driven and newly audiovisual style of filmmaking has been broken down into the key elements below, with a few specific examples from Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) being provided.

Mind map that details the features of Classical Hollywood style

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942)

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) is arguably the most prolific and well-acclaimed film released during the Golden Age era of Hollywood. It is an American romance/drama film starring Humphrey Bogart, Ingrid Bergman, and Paul Henreid. Being a landmark of cinema, Casablanca’s characters, quotes, and evocative theme song have garnered an iconic status over the last 80 years.

Plot

The film was both shot and takes place during World War II, centering around the protagonist, Rick Blaine – a cynical owner of a gambling den in Casablanca, Morocco – a French colony. The club is a cultural hub of refugees attempting to acquire visas to depart for America, who remained neutral in the war at the time. Rick’s cafe also hosts a number of Vichy French and German officials who attempt to persecute these refugees. Rick himself claims to be neutral in all matters, but we soon learn that he was a gunrunner for Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and also fought for the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War, demonstrating to the viewer that he fights for justice.

A crook called Ugarte has obtained “letters of transit” by killing two German couriers. These letters allow the bearers to travel freely around German-occupied Europe. Being highly sought after among the refugees in Rick’s club, Ugarte plans to sell them and persuades Rick to hold the letters for him. Ugarte is instead arrested by Captain Louis Renault – the corrupt police prefect of Casablanca – and dies in custody, keeping the fact that Rick has the letters secret.

Afterwards, a woman called Ilsa Lund enters Rick’s cafe. After Ilsa asks the club’s pianist, Sam, to play “As Time Goes By”, Rick becomes initially furious at Sam for disobeying his order to never play that song again. However, as Rick spots Ilsa, he is astonished and his anger is relieved immediately. It becomes clear that the couple have a history. Ilsa is married to Victor Laszlo, a Czech Resistance leader who is a fugitive and the couple seek an escape to America. A Nazi leader, Major Heinrich Strasser, enters the club in an attempt to arrest Victor.

After finding out that Rick possesses the letters of transit, Victor attempts to buy the letters off him. Rick refuses his offer and informs him to ask his wife, Ilsa, the reason why. Ilsa then confronts Rick to inquire why he refused her husband the letters, threatening him with a gun. She soon professes that she still loves Rick and explains that she thought that Victor had been killed while trying to escape from a concentration camp. We cut to a flashback sequence, and receive a glimpse of Rick and Ilsa’s time in Paris together. As the couple are about to flee the city together, Ilsa mysteriously abandons Rick without explanation to see her husband, who we learn is in a physically distraught condition after escaping the camp.

After learning this, Rick agrees to help the couple, falsely informing Ilsa that he will stay with her when Victor leaves. Victor enters unexpectedly and learns of Rick’s feelings for Ilsa. After she leaves, Victor tries to persuade him to use the letters of transit to take her to safety. Victor is then arrested by the police, during which Rick convinces Renault to release him by promising to set him up for the crime of possessing the letters. Rick explains to Renault that he and Ilsa are soon departing for America. Renault declines and attempts to arrest Victor, before Rick threatens him with a gun.

Right as the plane to Lisbon is about to leave, Rick tells Ilsa to board the plane with Victor, informing her that she would regret going with him and that “we’ll always have Paris”. Major Strasser attempts to intervene and arrest Victor, before Rick promptly shoots him. After the police arrive, Renault orders them to “round up the usual suspects”, before suggesting to Rick that they join the Free French in Brazzaville. As Victor and Ilsa depart for Lisbon, Rick and Renault walk away into the mist. Rick says, “Louis, I think is the beginning of a beautiful friendship.”

The final shot of the film

Context

The film was directed by Michael Curtiz, a Hungarian-American director who became the head of Warner Brothers’ Burbank studio. Curtiz’ filmography is vast, spanning over 100 films that were all released under Warner Brothers.

Released in 1942, Casablanca gained immediate critical success, winning three Oscars including Best Director – despite Warner Brothers’ apprehensiveness towards the film, fearing that it would flop. This was due to the fact that it was filmed over the course of three rushed months, with the actors and Curtiz not working well together on set. Casablanca was merely one of a multiplicity films released by Warner Brothers’ in 1942, and was neither the most expensive film nor the film the studio expected to take off.

Despite taking place in the exotic location of Casablanca in Morocco, the entire film was shot at Warner Brothers Studios in Burbank, California – the only exception being the the opening sequence in which Strasser flies past a aeroplane hangar, filmed at Van Nuys Airport, Los Angeles.

As previously mentioned, the film was both shot and takes place during World War II. Interestingly, the film was shot a mere four months before the events of Pearl Harbour, which is why the United States remain a neutral territory in the film. It exists in a liminal period in which America was fully at war, but not yet fully immersed in a propagandistic war ideology.

A shot from the opening sequence of Casablanca

Techniques

The film’s narrative is predominantly linear, with Curtiz making use of one flashback sequence to illustrate Rick and Ilsa’s romantic affairs in Paris. Curtiz also employs lots of centrally-framed closeups of both Rick and Ilsa, with key lighting and fill lighting also being implemented. Through this, both harsh shadows and well-defined outlines of the characters are created. This, alongside the fact that the film is in black and white accentuates the wistful emotion and atmosphere of the film. Due to the lighting, Ilsa appears to be emanating a sort of radiance which contributes to the mythical nature of her character. Rick’s cafe also feels incredibly lived-in and bustling through the use of blocking, mise-en-scène, and diegetic ambience.

As previously mentioned, the film’s main theme is particularly iconic – the diegetic implementation of the 1931 jazz piece, As Time Goes By. The piece provides a strong romantic evocation, and is played by Sam, the house pianist, in Rick’s club.

I really enjoyed Casablanca for the inarguably timeless romance story it offered, underpinned by the hardships faced by the refugees of World War II . It holds up extremely well for an 80-year-old film, and its prestigious pedestal in cinematic history is well deserved.

Overall, I would rate Casablanca ★★★★.

A central closeup of Ilsa, enhanced by key and fill lighting

Component 2d: Experimental Film 1960-2000 (Auteurship)

“Experimental film is often the result of an auteur challenging established conventions with fresh ideas.” With reference to your chosen film option, how far do you agree with this statement?

Summer 2019

Plan:

Introduction

Defined as a film director who influences their films so much that they rank as their author, being considered an auteur is a highly prestigious honour only held by small circle of filmmakers. Auteurs possess full creative control over each of their respective works and thus, the viewer is able to identify a film as being part of an auteur’s filmography from a wide range of observable tropes, such as: patterns, repetition, and motifs. Originating from the Cahiers du Cinema magazine in the 1950s, auteurship has always been closely linked with subverting the status quo, and bringing fresh ideas to the table, with revered names such as Hitchcock and Welles utilising groundbreaking techniques such as high contrast and camera fluidity to pioneer this concept.

From the very start of his filmography, Quentin Tarantino has demonstrated that he is most definitely an auteur. Throughout each of his nine films, Tarantino’s artistic expression can be viewed throughout a wide variety of patterns, tropes and motifs that set his films apart from mainstream Hollywood flicks. Tarantino’s unique style of filmmaking is universally recognisable and acknowledged by both viewer and critic alike, particularly within his second film considered by many to be his magnum opus – Pulp Fiction (1994).

Body

Mention dialogue, pop culture, trivialities

Violence

Chaptering and nonlinear narrative

Soundtrack

Postmodernism

Revitalising the career of John Travolta and Bruce Willis

The way he represents certain types of people – women, black people etc.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I firmly agree with the statement. Considered a landmark of the postmodernist movement, Tarantino actively challenges the pre-established conventions of filmmaking by utilising a wide variety of unorthodox measures throughout Pulp Fiction, such as stylised hyper-violence, a jumbled narrative structure, alongside seemingly trivial yet slick pop-culture filled dialogue, that ultimately paints Tarantino as a leading auteur of cinema.

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Essay – Version 1

Defined as a film director who influences their films so much that they rank as their author, being considered an auteur is a highly prestigious honour only held by small circle of filmmakers. Auteurs possess full creative control over each of their respective works and thus, the viewer is able to identify a film as being part of an auteur’s filmography from a wide range of observable tropes, such as patterns, repetition, and motifs. Originating from the Cahiers du Cinema magazine in the 1950s, the concept of auteurship has always been closely linked with subverting the status quo, and bringing fresh ideas to the table, with revered names such as Hitchcock and Welles utilising groundbreaking techniques such as high contrast and camera fluidity to pioneer this concept.

From the very start of his filmography, Quentin Tarantino has demonstrated that he is most definitely an auteur. Throughout each of his nine films, Tarantino’s artistic expression can be viewed throughout a wide variety of patterns, tropes and motifs that set his films apart from mainstream Hollywood flicks. Tarantino’s unique style of filmmaking is universally recognisable and acknowledged by both viewer and critic alike, particularly within his second film considered by many to be his magnum opus – Pulp Fiction (1994).

A cornerstone of Tarantino’s auterial tropes present within each and every one of his films is his stylistic use of dialogue. A typical occurrence is that a character will engage in a lengthy monologue about a seemingly trivial matter that is unimportant to the overall plot. The dialogue throughout Pulp Fiction moves with a flowing rhythm, being both fast paced and densely packed. Each character actively engages in seemingly trivial monologues, concerning frivolous topics such as burgers, milkshakes, and foot massages. In effect, this dialogue does not drive the plot forward, but instead richly humanises the archetypal characters being portrayed. The viewer is then able to empathise with characters that in actuality, are repugnant humans who commit morally corrupt actions for their own personal gain.

Tarantino also frequently uses swearing within his dialogue, initially providing shock value for the viewer, but it soon becomes clear that the profanity merely acts as a device that relaxes the viewer into the rhythm of the film. It provides for more naturalistic character interactions and contributes to the slick nature of the dialogue. Frequent pop culture references also appear throughout the dialogue of Tarantino’s films, references which provide a level of satisfaction and relatability for the viewer. For example, within Pulp Fiction (1994), bands such as Kool and the Gang, and TV shows such as Green Acres are name dropped. Despite being frequently observable throughout Tarantino’s films, these pop culture references occur swiftly instant, and do not detract from the flow of the film.

Stylised violence is another motif that contributes to Tarantino’s status as an auteur. Throughout his films, Tarantino often implements hyper-violence for two main purposes: light-hearted comedy and exhilarating or subversive set-pieces. An example of violence used in a comedic sense is during the infamous “I shot Marvin in the face” scene from Pulp Fiction. Marvin’s sudden death is ridiculously exaggerated and completely unexpected, creating one of the film’s funniest moments through the subversive use of gratuitous gore. Conversely, graphic violence is used during Vincent’s untimely death at the hands of Butch to make the scene more subversive and shocking – the gore reinforces that one of the main protagonists of the film is indeed dead.

Chaptering is a narrative technique often utilised by Tarantino throughout his filmography, providing structural compartmentalisation. Throughout Pulp Fiction, chapters are used to clearly define specific sections of the film. Through this, the film possesses a distinctively episodic flow to the narrative – the film tells three clear-cut yet interwoven storylines that are presented in a highly nonlinear fashion, each being signalled by the use chapter title cards. Through this, Tarantino creates some truly subversive moments, such as Vincent’s aforementioned death which occurs in the middle of the film. At this point, the viewer is so engrossed within Butch’s chapter in the film, that the idea of Vincent being behind the bathroom door doesn’t even cross the mind of the viewer – making his untimely death all the more unexpected.

The soundtrack of each and every one of Tarantino’s films are highly prolific and contribute to his rank as an auteur. Tarantino strives to acquire an eclectic compiled score for each film, usually made up of music from the 1960s and 70s which provide an potent evocation of the respective decades. Through this, Tarantino often brings long-forgotten deep cuts of the time period into the spotlight of the modern day, and revitalises their legacy. A clear example of this can be seen within Dick Dale’s 1962 surf rock cover of Misirlou, which is now synonymous with the opening titles of Pulp Fiction.

Another unconventional technique employed throughout Pulp Fiction is postmodernism – a term closely associated with Tarantino’s body of work, often making romanticised references to aesthetics that fuel his creative inspirations. Within Pulp Fiction, this idea can be seen through Butch selecting a katana as his weapon of choice, harkening back to Tarantino’s fascination towards the films of Akira Kurosawa. The Jack Rabbit Slim’s diner pays homage to the pop culture of the 1950s – oozing with the style of the decade and displaying cultural icons such as Marilyn Monroe and Buddy Holly. Tarantino has also created a fictional brand of cigarettes (Red Apple) and burger (Big Kahuna) that appear throughout the film, with this perhaps being Tarantino’s way of light-heartedly acknowledging the postmodernist culture that his filmography is associated with. Tarantino is also a very traditional filmmaker, always opting for the use of 70mm celluloid film, despite the benefits of digital filmmaking.

Another auterial trait of Tarantino is his tendency to revitalise the careers of actors who were generally associated with playing certain types of roles in the past. For example, audiences were surprised to see the return of John Travolta – an actor of the 1970s regarded as a handsome heartthrob – cast as Vincent Vega, a charismatic yet corrupt hitman, in Pulp Fiction. Furthering this, a number of racial epithets are also prominent within the dialogue of the film, but this isn’t considered to be exploitative due to Tarantino’s conceptual footing. He instead uses these stereotypes to create strong black characters, such as Jules and Marsellus, who play a hitman and mob boss respectively – two highly dominant forces to be reckoned with.

In conclusion, I firmly agree with the statement. Considered a landmark of the postmodernist movement, Tarantino actively challenges the pre-established conventions of filmmaking by utilising a wide variety of unorthodox measures throughout Pulp Fiction, such as stylised hyper-violence, a jumbled narrative structure, alongside seemingly trivial yet slick pop-culture filled dialogue, that ultimately paints Tarantino as a leading auteur of contemporary cinema.

Quentin Tarantino, Auteur

From the very start of his filmography, Quentin Tarantino has demonstrated that he is most definitely a film director who influences their films so much that they rank as their author, establishing his status as an auteur. Throughout each of his nine films, Tarantino’s artistic expression can be viewed throughout a wide variety of patterns, tropes and motifs. Setting his films apart from mainstream Hollywood flicks, Tarantino’s unique style of filmmaking is universally recognisable and acknowledged by both viewer and critic alike.

A cornerstone of Tarantino’s auterial tropes present within each and every one of his films is his stylistic use of dialogue. A typical occurrence is that a character will engage in a lengthy monologue about a seemingly trivial matter that is unimportant to the overall plot. A classic example of this can be seen within the opening of Reservoir Dogs (1992) in which the bank robbers engage in a conversation in a diner concerning both Madonna as well and tipping waitresses. Tarantino also uses dialogue to illustrate entertaining set-pieces, which do not drive the plot forward, but instead humanise the characters being portrayed. For example, the ‘Who Am I?’ guessing game proves to be one of the most engaging scenes in Inglorious Basterds (2009), despite not contributing to plot progression in any way.

The classic opening scene of Reservoir Dogs (1992)

Tarantino’s dialogue moves with a flowing rhythm, being both fast paced and densely packed throughout his films. He frequently uses swearing within his dialogue, initially providing shock value for the viewer, but it soon acts as a device that relaxes them into the rhythm of the film. It provides for more naturalistic character interactions and merely contributes to the slick nature of the dialogue. Frequent pop culture references also appear throughout the dialogue of Tarantino’s films, references which provide a level of satisfaction and relatability for the viewer. For example, within Pulp Fiction (1994), bands such as Kool and the Gang and TV shows such as Green Acres are name dropped. Despite being frequently observable throughout Tarantino’s films, these pop culture references are moved on from in an instant, and do not detract from the flow of the film. A number of racial epithets are also prominent within the dialogue, but this isn’t considered to be exploitative due to Tarantino’s conceptual footing – he instead uses these stereotypes to create strong black characters, such as Django in Django Unchained (2012) and Jackie Brown from Jackie Brown (1997).

Stylised violence is another motif that contributes to Tarantino’s status as an auteur. Throughout his films, Tarantino often implements hyper-violence for two main purposes: light-hearted comedy and exhilarating action set-pieces. An example of violence used in a comedic sense is during the infamous “I shot Marvin in the face” scene from Pulp Fiction. Marvin’s sudden death is ridiculously exaggerated and completely unexpected, creating one of the film’s funniest moments through the use of gratuitous gore. Conversely, hyper-violence is used by Tarantino in Kill Bill (2003-4) to create dramatic and enthralling set-pieces, acting as a homage to samurai cinema.

Stylised violence within Kill Bill (2003)

Chaptering is a narrative technique often utilised by Tarantino throughout his filmography, providing structural compartmentalisation. Appearing in films such as Pulp Fiction, Inglorious Basterds, and The Hateful Eight (2015), chapters are used to clearly define specific sections of the film. Furthermore, Tarantino’s films tend to possess an episodic flow to the narrative – particular in the case of Pulp Fiction in which three distinct yet intertwining storylines are told in a nonlinear fashion, each being signalled by chapter title cards.

The soundtrack of each and every one of Tarantino’s films are highly prolific and contribute to his rank as an auteur. Tarantino strives to acquire an eclectic compiled score for each film, usually made up of music from the 1960s and 70s which provide an potent evocation of the respective decades. Through this, Tarantino often brings long-forgotten deep cuts of the time period into the spotlight of the modern day, and revitalises their legacy. A clear example of this can be seen within Dick Dale’s 1962 surf rock cover of Misirlou, which is now synonymous with the opening titles of Pulp Fiction.

Postmodernism is a term closely associated with Tarantino – he often makes romanticised references to aesthetics that fuel his creative inspirations. Within Pulp Fiction, this idea can be seen through Butch selecting a katana as his weapon of choice, harkening back to Tarantino’s obsession with the films of Akira Kurosawa. The Jack Rabbit Slim’s diner pays homage to the pop culture of the 1950s – oozing with style of the decade and displaying cultural icons such as Marilyn Monroe and Buddy Holly. Tarantino has also created a fictional brand of cigarettes (Red Apple) and burger (Big Kahuna) that appear throughout his films, perhaps it is Tarantino’s way of light-heartedly acknowledging the postmodernist culture that his filmography is associated with. Tarantino is also a very traditional filmmaker, always opting for the use of 70mm celluloid film, despite the benefits of digital filmmaking.

The diner evocative of the 1950s – Jack Rabbit Slim’s in Pulp Fiction (1994)

Tarantino typically recasts a particular selection of actors within his films, including the likes of Samuel L. Jackson, Uma Thurman, Tim Roth, and recently Brad Pitt. Tarantino also likes to subvert the general associations with a particular actor, and in some cases reinvent and revitalise their careers. For example, audiences were surprised to see the return of John Travolta – an actor of the 1970s regarded as a handsome heartthrob – cast as Vincent Vega, a charismatic yet corrupt hitman, in Pulp Fiction.

Female characters are also represented in a strong and self-reliant light within Tarantino’s films, juxtaposing the submissive stereotypes associated with mainstream Hollywood films. Characters such as The Bride in Kill Bill and Daisy Domergue in The Hateful Eight are ruthless forces to be reckoned with, and are richly characterised throughout their respective films.

Jennifer Jason Leigh as Daisy Domergue in The Hateful Eight (2015)

Auteurs And Auteur Theory

Originating from the French masculine word for ‘author’, an auteur is defined as a film director who influences their films so much that they rank as their author. Auteurs possess full creative control over each of their respective works and thus, the viewer is able to identify a film as being part of an auteur’s filmography from a wide range of observable tropes, such as: patterns, repetition, and motifs.

The idea of ‘auteurship’ originated in the Cahiers du Cinema magazine (founded in 1951 by French film critic and theorist André Bazin) to praise directors that demonstrated particular artistic finesse within the studio system. The first auteurs included notable names such as Alfred Hitchcock and Orson Welles – names that are still ever-pertinent within cinema to this day.

Hitchcock established himself as an auteur through his groundbreaking implementation of filmic techniques, such as utilising lighter film cameras, allowing him to have fluid camera movements within a scene. This aided the viewer in becoming immersed within the viewpoint of a specific character, such as being able to empathise with the fear of heights that John Ferguson has in Vertigo (1958). Orson Welles is regarded by many as the “ultimate auteur”, utilising a range of revolutionary and innovative compositional techniques in order to convey narrative effectively. Welles’ scenes were often lit with high contrast, meaning that characters were often displayed completely in silhouette. This helped to create a looming sense of mystery and intrigue within his films.

Welles’ use of high contrast lighting within Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1942)

Auteurs are renowned by audiences for the ways in which each individual artist creatively utilises the elements of film form at their disposal. Including the likes of Christopher Nolan, some auteurs are regarded for their manipulation of narrative. Nolan often toys with the concept of time and space throughout his body of work. Other contemporary auteurs such as Wes Anderson are acclaimed for imbuing each of his films with meticulous symmetry alongside an opulently lavish aesthetic. His apt use of a pastel colour palette throughout The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014) is highly evocative as well as distinctively recognisable.

Anderson’s use of symmetry and colour palette can be seen with The Grand Budapest Hotel (2014)

Despite this, the concept of auteurship has been criticised by critics such as Pauline Kael, proclaiming that auteur theory “glorifies trash” and encourages directors to reproduce the same film time and time again. Kael argued that each film should be critiqued on its own merit, rather than solely due to a specific person creating it. Others have argued that filmmaking is a collaborative process, and auteur theory undermines the role of the crew. All credit garnered by the film is then placed under one singular name, and other creative minds who may have contributed towards the film are diminished.

Component 2d: Experimental Film 1960-2000 (Narrative)

Explore how far your chosen film or films are experimental in challenging conventional approaches to narrative.

Sample Assessment Materials, 2021

Plan:

Introduction

Establish the conventions of narrative (three act structure, chronology, linearity) and introduce the theorists (Propp, Todorov etc). Contextualise the work of Tarantino (Reservoir Dogs – a low budget crime thriller set in one location etc). Pulp Fiction is an experimental and postmodernist film, considered by many to be his magnum opus. It subverts the tropes of conventional narrative structure to provide a unique and refreshing experience.

Body

Narrative structure: Takes elements from linear, circular, and episodic narrative structures to tell three interconnected stories in a vastly nonlinear fashion. Three act structure present in each chapter.

Dialogue – seemingly trivial monologues, pop culture references. Flowing rhythm facilitated by dialogue. Link to the film’s pacing.

Narrative viewpoint – fluidly shifts focus onto different characters and frames them as the protagonist at different points (Pumpkin and Honey Bunny in the prologue, Jules and Vincent during the epilogue. Shifts to Mia during overdose scene)

Narrative devices: title cards, chaptering, audience positioning (enjoying being in the company of immoral characters, characterises initially archetypal and cliched characters. Zed and Maynard framed as antagonists)

Briefly references theories and theorists throughout.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Tarantino challenges the typical approaches to narrative in a wide variety of ways throughout Pulp Fiction. Taking elements of the three types of narrative structure, Tarantino presents three distinct chapters to us in a nonlinear fashion. This, alongside other experimental narrative techniques such as narrative viewpoint, audience positioning, and ellipsis, the film is a wholly unique viewing experience, providing a refreshing pastiche of pulpy crime stories, ultimately garnering a revered status among all of cinema.

Essay plan

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Essay – Version 1

A vital keystone of filmmaking is the overarching concept of narrative – the general flow of story information constructed by the plot. The vast majority of films typically conform to an array of preconceived narrative conventions, including: a rigid three act structure, a chronological plot, as well as the use of narrative techniques such as prolepsis, analepsis, and ellipsis. Many literary theorists, such as Vladimir Propp (who theorised the seven types of character) and Tzvetan Todorov (who formulated the Equilibrium Theory) also support these ideas, fervently stating that a narrative should be constructed in a particular way. Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994) was released as the follow-up to Reservoir Dogs, a low-budget crime thriller that plays with the conventions of a typical narrative. Tarantino’s second film is widely considered by many to be his magnum opus, being classified as both postmodernist and experimental in nature, particularly in a narrative sense. Throughout the film, Tarantino subverts the traditional conventions of narrative created by the aforementioned theorists, by utilising the pre-established narrative techniques in a variety of unorthodox ways, ultimately creating a refreshing and unique experience.

One way in which Tarantino challenges the conventions of narrative is within the structure of the film. The events that occur throughout the film are a pastiche of pulpy stories of the crime genre. Tarantino immediately informs us of this through the use of a title card, which displays the two definitions of “pulp”. The first meaning is “a soft, moist, shapeless mass of matter”, perhaps hinting at the shapeless and nonlinear narrative structure of the film. The second definition, “a magazine or book containing lurid subject matter and being characteristically printed on rough, unfinished paper” on the other hand, is suggestive of the titular ‘pulp fiction’ that exudes throughout. The events and characters are both highly archetypal and cliched, and this idea is immediately suggested to the viewer through the utilisation of this unconventional title card.

The story of the film is relatively simple, with the film containing four episodic chapters with interconnected characters and events. On the other hand, the plot of the film is constructed in a highly nonlinear and convoluted manner. Although each chapter itself has a linear structure, the order in which it is shown to the viewer is non-chronological. This fragmentation of the plot creates an underlying sense of anticipation, with the viewer awaiting the repercussions of the non-chronological events due to the fact that they witness the events out of order. The narrative structure of the film could also be classed as circular, due to the film being bookended by the diner robbery sequence. Through this, Tarantino has taken elements from all three types of narrative (linear, circular, and episodic) in order to create a wholly unique and experimental narrative structure.

Each chapter of the film is signalled by an intertitle, and also loosely follows the aforementioned three act structure. For example, during The Gold Watch chapter, Act 1 displays Butch being paid by Marsellus to throw his next fight, Act 2 begins with the sequence in which Butch returns to his apartment, finally concluding with Act 3 in which Butch saves Marsellus and returns to Fabienne. By only displaying fragmented acts of the multiple storylines in a jumbled succession, Tarantino subverts the viewer’s preconceived expectations of what a typical narrative structure entails, ultimately forging a unique and satisfying viewing experience in the process.

Another way in which Tarantino challenges the conventions of a typical narrative is through his use of dialogue and pacing, facilitating audience positioning in different ways throughout Pulp Fiction. The dialogue throughout the film is densely packed, containing lots more than the average film. The characters engage in seemingly trivial monologues, concerning frivolous topics such as burgers, TV pilots, and foot massages. The dialogue is also with peppered with pop culture references to branded items such as the Big Mac, bands like Kool and the Gang, and TV shows such as Green Acres. The dialogue is entertaining and enjoyable to listen to, despite the fact that it does not drive the plot forward in any way. Through this, each of the characters that initially appear to be one-noted and archetypal are thus humanised and are presented in a more charismatic light.

The viewer is encouraged to enjoy being in the company of Vincent and Jules, who in actuality, are two highly repugnant gangsters who kill people for money. Through the use of dialogue, Tarantino presents the pair as a witty and charismatic duo. The viewer is prompted to sympathise with an array of despicable characters who we initially wouldn’t. Conversely, characters such as Zed and Maynard are positioned as antagonistic forces during Butch’s story, despite perhaps being no worse than the protagonists that we root for.

Another unconventional narrative technique employed by Tarantino also involves fluidly shifting focus onto specific characters at specific times, briefly framing them as the ‘protagonist’, if only for a moment. For example, we subconsciously root for Pumpkin and Honey Bunny during the prologue, as they are the only characters we are aware of at the very start of the film. Conversely, the viewer is encouraged to support Jules and Vincent during the epilogue, as the couple are now subtly framed as the antagonists of the scene. It could be argued that Claude Levi-Strauss’ theory of binary opposition is now present within the reprise of the scene, creating a sense of suspense and tension. The focus often shifts seamlessly without the viewer noticing, an example being when the shift focuses from Vincent onto Mia when they return to the apartment, initiating the sequence in which she overdoses on heroin. This technique of narrative viewpoint also creates for some highly shocking and subversive moments, including Vincent’s sudden death at the hands of Butch. At this point, the viewer is so engrossed within Butch’s chapter in the film, that the idea of Vincent being behind the bathroom door doesn’t even cross the mind of the viewer – making his untimely death all the more unexpected.

In conclusion, Tarantino challenges the typical approaches to narrative in a wide variety of ways throughout Pulp Fiction. Taking elements from all three types of narrative, Tarantino presents three distinct chapters to us in a nonlinear fashion. This, alongside other aforementioned experimental narrative techniques such as narrative viewpoint, audience positioning, and pacing, the film’s narrative offers a truly unique viewing experience. Tarantino provides a refreshing pastiche of pulpy crime stories, ultimately garnering Pulp Fiction’s revered status among all of cinema.

Pulp Fiction: Narrative Drive

Quentin Tarantino utilises a variety of narrative techniques in order to propel the plot forward in enthralling and captivating ways.

Dialogue

Throughout Tarantino’s filmography, densely-packed dialogue is a keystone of Tarantino’s body of work. The characters often monologue about seemingly trivial topics, including: burgers, divine intervention, and foot massages. Tarantino’s dialogue is also peppered with pop culture references to brands such as Big Mac, bands like Kool and the Gang (who also feature in the compiled score), and TV shows such as “Green Acres”. The dialogue is entertaining and enjoyable to listen to, despite the fact that it does not drive the plot forward in any way. The viewer receives entertainment from listening in on these everyday conversations, especially from characters that you wouldn’t expect to discuss such trivial matters.

Through this, the rhythm of the film flows in a refreshing manner. Since Vincent and Jules’ journey to the apartment takes up a similar amount of screen time to the events that unfold within the flat itself, the viewer’s perception of time is shifted. The characters, which initially appear to be hollow and one-noted, are also fleshed out through these seemingly mundane conversation topics.

Character Motivations

Character motivations are defined as the driving force behind a character’s actions. These are fundamental to the viewer’s understanding of and engagement with the meanings behind the events that occur throughout the film. During Pulp Fiction, Tarantino’s aforementioned dialogue facilitates the characters’ motivations and thus, the overall narrative drive of the film.

For example, after we learn about the seemingly trivial foot massage incident, in which Tony Rocky Horror was thrown out of a window, we are able to understand and empathise with Vincent’s apprehensiveness towards taking out Mia for the night. This motivation helps drastically increase the tension during Mia’s overdose, as the viewer is left to ponder the consequences of Marsellus discovering the truth. Another example of motivations aiding the narrative drive of the film is Captain Koons’ monologue to a young Butch about the gold watch, prompting Butch to return to his apartment to reclaim it.

Cause and Effect

This idea is defined as “something that triggers an event or action (cause) and its consequences (effect)”. All films are constructed around this fundamental idea, beginning with an inciting incident and thus enacting a chain of events to be set in motion. For example, Vincent and Jules are assigned by Marsellus Wallace to collect a mysterious briefcase from an apartment. This inciting incident ultimately leads to each of the events that occur during their storyline to take place. The vividly realised and nuanced characters present within Pulp Fiction allow the cause and effect to be highly specific and esoteric throughout.

Pacing

Pacing is defined as “the rhythm at which the plot unfolds”. Being widely overlooked by many, pacing can effect the foundations of a film’s rhythm in drastic ways. An action film is typically very fast-paced, as it attempts to keep the viewer engaged with an array of high-octane sequences. Conversely, a mystery film might be more paced in a slower, more deliberate manner in order to try and keep the viewer in anticipation for as long as possible.

Tarantino deliberately paces his films in a highly unorthodox and unique manner, subverting the viewer’s expectations in the process. To elaborate, seemingly unimportant and self-indulgent scenes take up a large chunk of screen time. These include the likes of Jules and Vincent’s drive to the apartment, Captain Koons’ watch monologue, as well as Mia and Vincent’s conversation in the diner. Conversely, crucially important plot events are over in a matter of seconds – examples including Vincent shooting Marvin in the face and Vincent’s sudden death. Additionally, the viewer is subjected to Pumpkin and Honey Bunny’s meandering conversation about armed robberies at the beginning of the film, which ultimately builds up to the diner robbery. However, Tarantino teases the viewer by not showing us the aftermath of the couple holding up the restaurant until the very end of the film. In effect, this keeps the audience engaged in this plot thread up until the very end of the film, during which the robbery is finally displayed to us.

Chronological Flow

This idea is defined as “the arrangement of things following one after another in time”. The narrative of the Pulp Fiction is relatively simple, with the film containing four episodic chapters with interconnected characters and events. On the other hand, the plot of the film is constructed in a highly nonlinear and convoluted manner. Although each chapter itself has a linear structure, the order in which it is shown to the viewer is non-chronological. This fragmentation of the plot creates an underlying sense of anticipation. Due to the fact that the viewer is witnessing events out of order, we expect to see the repercussions of these events later in the film.

Pulp Fiction: Narrative Nonconformity

The concept of narrative involves the discussion of a variety of collective ideas that link to how the story of a film is presented to the viewer, alongiside how the story is internalised. This blog will explain the key narrative functions, as well as how Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994), in many cases, does not conform to these narrative conventions.

Story, plot, and narrative

The overall concept of narrative can be subdivided into three ideas: story, plot, and narrative.

Story is defined as “everything that happens in the fictional world between the beginning and the end, including events that viewers infer or presume to have happened”. In essence, this means that story is the collection of narrative events that both occur and are implied throughout the film.

Plot is defined as “what viewers see on screen and hear on the soundtrack to allow them to construct a story in their heads. Plots can begin anywhere on the chain of story events and can leap backwards and forwards in time and space.” Plot expands upon the initial concept of ‘story’ by introducing the idea of the viewer’s internal contextualisation of narrative events. Plot also hints at the idea of nonlinearity, which suggests that not all stories must be told in a rigidly chronological order.

Narrative is defined as “the flow of story information constructed by the plot at any given moment. Narrative implies a point of view, which may be that of one of the characters or of an omniscient, all-seeing narrator.” Narrative introduces the idea of using different character perspectives in order to enrich the meaning of a film. Switching perspectives often gives the viewer new insight into the characters’ motivations, as well as the meaning behind the events occurring onscreen.

In the case of Pulp Fiction, Tarantino utilises each of these narrative elements in order to create a unique and satisfying experience. The story of the film is relatively simple, with the film containing four episodic chapters with intertwining characters and events. On the other hand, the plot of the film is constructed in a highly nonlinear and convoluted manner. Although each chapter itself has a linear structure, the order in which it is shown to the viewer is non-chronological. This fragmentation of the plot creates an underlying sense of anticipation. Due to the fact that the viewer is witnessing events out of order, we expect to see the repercussions of these events later in the film.

Pulp Fiction also uses the aforementioned multi-character perspective idea, affecting the narrative of the film. For example, the restaurant robbery scene is displayed to us initially from the perspectives of Pumpkin and Honey Bunny, thus diverting our attention towards the pair as characters. We are engaged by their conversation suggesting a potential robbery and are subsequently teased by the very start of it. Tarantino provides closure on this event at the very end of the film, during which Jules and Vincent are the central focus. We now root for them, as the narrative focus has been shifted, affecting the viewer’s perception of events. On the surface, Pulp Fiction’s multiple storylines could be considered ‘clichéd’ or archetypal, due to each event that occurs being nothing that is wholly original. The predominant pleasure that the film provides is ultimately the meticulously crafted narrative structure.

The Three Act Structure

Another touchstone of storytelling is the three act structure – a model widely utilised throughout fiction. Dividing a narrative into three clear-cut sections, the typical structure involves three acts (setup, confrontation, resolution). In the case of Pulp Fiction, each chapter of the film loosely follows this structure. For example, during Butch’s story: Act 1 displays Butch being paid by Marsellus to throw his next fight, Act 2 is the sequence in which Butch returns to his apartment through to the pawn shop scene, finally concluding with Act 3 in which Butch saves Marsellus and returns to Fabienne.

By only displaying fragmented acts of the multiple storylines in quick succession, Tarantino subverts the viewer’s preconceived expectations of what a typical narrative structure entails.

Types of Narrative

There are three main types of narrative, being: linear, circular, and episodic.

Linear narrative “starts at the beginning, and continues in the order that events happen up to the end.” This is the most conventional and simple narrative structure, displaying events in a straight forward and chronological order.

Circular narrative “starts at the end, then goes back in time to return to this point later on.” This is an interesting story structure, creating an immediate narrative hook to reel in the viewer’s attention. Over the course of the film, this memory of this event will linger in the viewer’s mind and a sense of satisfaction will be provided when the event is finally reprised. A example of this can be seen in Pan’s Labyrinth (Guillermo del Toro, 2006). Ofelia’s death is initially displayed to the viewer in reverse at the very start of the film, and is later returned to at the end, by which point we understand the context surrounding the previously shocking and unexpected event.

Episodic narrative “has clearly separated sections, often broken up by a title, date, or a cutback to a narrator.” This allows a film to tell more than one story, perhaps in a portmanteau style. An example of this can be seen in Wild Tales (Damián Szifron, 2014) in which five stories are told, each connected by the theme of revenge.

In the case of Pulp Fiction, Tarantino utilises elements of all three modes of narrative throughout the film. For example, large chunks of the film are displayed in a wholly linear fashion, such as Vincent and Mia’s date, during which Tarantino employs techniques such as continuity editing. The narrative of the film could also be considered circular, due to the fact that the the robbery scene in the diner acts as both a prologue and epilogue section. Pulp Fiction could also be considered episodic too, seeing as the film is broken down into chapters that are signalled by intertitles.

Pulp Fiction’s narrative structure

Prolepsis (flash-forward) and Analepsis (flashback)

A pair of techniques that are often utilised within storytelling are prolepsis and analepsis.

Prolepsis (often referred to as a flash-forward) is a “temporal edit to a later point in time”. This dramatic device can be used to foreshadow and tease future events to the viewer.

Conversely, analepsis (often referred to as a flashback) is a “temporal edit to an earlier point in time”. Analepsis can be utilised to perhaps provide contextual information, displaying past events that will become relevant to the current narrative at a later point.

Tarantino uses both prolepsis and analepsis at specific points throughout Pulp Fiction. Namely, a flash-forward sequence occurs during The Bonnie Situation. This hypothetical sequence displays Bonnie returning home from work to find the gangsters handling a body in the living room. A flashback is used as a preface to Butch’s story – Captain Koons monologues to a young Butch, explaining the importance of the titular gold watch. This later contextualises Butch’s return to the apartment in order to reclaim this watch.

Ellipsis

This narrative device is defined as “the emission of a section of the story that is either obvious enough for the audience to fill in, or concealed for a narrative purpose, such as suspense or mystery”. Ellipsis is widely used throughout film, leaving the viewer to frequently assume that events have occurred. For example, unless it possesses significant importance, a character’s physical journey from point A to point B is not usually displayed to the viewer due to the fact that we can safely assume how they reached this destination. Ellipsis is also used for much more dramatic purposes, such as in 2001: A Space Odyssey (Stanley Kubrick, 1968) in which Kubrick famously match cuts from a spinning bone to a spaceship, effectively fast-forwarding the entire evolution of humankind.

Pulp Fiction uses ellipses to withhold important information from the viewer at specific points in the film, ultimately providing a sense of gratification when the viewer pieces the events together. A clear example of this is during the shared prologue and epilogue of the film – the diner scene. During the prologue, we are only aware of Pumpkin and Honey Bunny’s presence and only later learn during the epilogue that Jules and Vincent are in fact sitting in the same location.

Kubrick’s famous bone-to-spaceship match cut

Narrative Viewpoint

Narrative viewpoint is the lens through which we view the plot. There are three main types of narrative, being: restricted, unrestricted/omniscient, and voiceover/narrative.

A restricted narrative viewpoint is when “the audience only know as much as the main character.” This viewpoint is often used to create a sense of mystery; due to the viewer only having the knowledge of the protagonist they are also encouraged to connect with them on a deeper level.

An unrestricted/omniscient viewpoint is when “the audience sees aspects of the narrative that the main character does not.” This type of viewpoint often creates dramatic irony – a useful narrative device that creates tension and suspense.

Voiceover/narration is “an omniscient or subjective non diegetic verbal commentary.” Narration is often used in films such as Fight Club (David Fincher, 1999) and GoodFellas (Martin Scorsese, 1990) to provide a direct line of communication between the characters and the viewer. However, voiceover often provides a biased perspective on events. Despite this, the two aforementioned films utilise this to their advantage.

Tarantino combines both restricted and unrestricted viewpoints throughout Pulp Fiction, providing a sense of satisfaction for the viewer in both cases. An example of a restricted viewpoint in the film is during the scene where Jules and Vincent collect the briefcase from the apartment. During this scene, the viewer is unaware that there is a man in the bathroom with a gun and we only learn this fact once we return to the scene later in the film.

An unrestricted viewpoint used in the film is the scene where Mia overdoses on heroin. Earlier in the film, Vincent is displayed buying powered heroin from Lance. At Mia’s apartment, Vincent leaves this heroin on the table, prompting Mia to snort a line after getting back from Jack Rabbit Slim’s, as she assumes that it is cocaine. With the use of an omnipotent narrative viewpoint, Tarantino creates dramatic irony during this scene, establishing suspense and drama.

Narrative Devices

These are an assortment of techniques used frequently throughout storytelling for a variety of intended effects. These include title cards, intertitles, chaptering, and audience positioning.

Title cards are “printed contextual text at the start of the film”. Pulp Fiction opens with a dictionary definition of “pulp”, displaying the two meanings to the viewer. The first meaning is “a soft, moist, shapeless mass of matter” which perhaps hints at the overall narrative structure of the film. The second definition, “a magazine or book containing lurid subject matter and being characteristically printed on rough, unfinished paper” is suggestive of the “Pulp Fiction” present throughout. The events and characters are both highly archetypal and cliched, and this idea is immediately suggested by the dictionary title card.

The second narrative devices is intertiles, which are instances of “printed text or narration shown between scenes”. Popularised by silent filmmakers such as Buster Keaton, this technique was to convey expositional information that could not be told through silent action. As such, intertiles are not present throughout Pulp Fiction.

Chaptering is the “division of a narrative into distinct, labelled units.” Linking to the aforementioned episodic narrative structure, this narrative device allows filmmakers to present multiple, clear-cut storylines. Tarantino employs chaptering to divide the three interconnected storylines into distinct episodes of the film. These chapters include “Vincent Vega and Marcellus Wallace’s Wife”, “The Gold Watch”, and “The Bonnie Situation”.

Audience positioning is a nuanced and engaging narrative device that involves “how the narrative encourages or discourages audience sympathies and reactions.” In Pulp Fiction, this causes the viewer to empathise with different characters in different ways at different times. The characters, who we initially view as mere archetypes of the crime genre, are thus humanised by how Tarantino positions the audience. We enjoy being in the company of Vincent and Jules, two highly repugnant gangsters who kill people for money are presented as a charismatic and comedic duo. The viewer is encouraged to sympathise with an array of despicable characters who we initially wouldn’t.

Conversely, characters such as Zed and Maynard are positioned as antagonistic forces during Butch’s story, despite perhaps being no worse than the protagonists that we root for. The audience is also positioned to view different characters as the ‘protagonist’ during certain section of the film. For example, we subconsciously root for Pumpkin and Honey Bunny during the prologue, but support Jules and Vincent during the epilogue as the couple are framed as the antagonists within the reprise of the scene. The focus often shifts fluidly without the viewer noticing, an example being when the shift focuses from Vincent onto Mia when they return to the apartment.

The ‘pulp’ dictionary definition title card

Narrative Theories and Theorists

A number of narrative theorists formulated specific theories concerning storytelling, characters and structure. These include Vladimir Propp, Tzvetan Todorov, Roland Barthes, and Claude Levi-Strauss. Taking these theories into account, it becomes clear that Pulp Fiction does not conform to typical narrative conventions.

Vladimir Propp was a Soviet literary theorist who studied Russian folklore and created two narrative theories. He first theorised the concept of the seven character archetypes that all characters in fiction must conform to. These include the Hero, Villain, Princess, Donor, Dispatcher, Helper, and the False Hero. Each of these character types supposedly serve a specific purpose in each narrative. In Pulp Fiction’s case, Tarantino does not conform to the idea of the seven character types due to the fact that we do not follow a single journey, and each character in the film fulfils multiple roles at particular times.

Propp’s second theory involved the idea of 31 narrative functions that every story would contain at least some of, in a particular pre-conceived order. Again, this theory does not apply to Pulp Fiction seeing as the theory only applies to stories told in a chronological order.

Tzvetan Todorov was a Bulgarian-French historian who created the ‘Equilibrium Theory’, stating that every story is made up five stages. These include equilibrium, disruption of equilibrium, recognition of disruption, resolution, and new equilibrium. Once again, this theory does not apply to Pulp Fiction – its fragmented narrative subverts both this theory alongside the viewer’s prior knowledge of narrative structure.

Roland Barthes was a French essayist who created the ‘Narrative Codes Theory’, stating that all stories are made up of two types of codes. Firstly, the ‘action code’ involves a physical event that is displayed, prompting the viewer to ponder the consequences of it. An example of an action code in Pulp Fiction is the scene where Vincent accidentally shoots Marvin in the face. The viewer is left in awe of this shocking event, causing them to possess an intrigue as to what the consequences might be.

The second type of code created by Barthes is the ‘enigma code’. This idea depicts an intriguing event that creates a sense of mystery, and prompts the viewer to acquire an interest in unravelling the mystery. Tarantino employs this idea in Pulp Fiction by using the elusive briefcase to create a sense of intrigue. Furthermore, the viewer never actually finds out what is in the briefcase, letting the mystery remain unsolved forever.

Claude Lévi-Strauss was a French anthropologist who created the theory of ‘Binary Opposition’. He argued that audience engagement is driven by tension between binary opposites, such as: good vs evil, race, and social rankings. Whilst binary opposites are not a prominent theme featured throughout Pulp Fiction, certain predicaments do arise from opposing views – an example being when Mia wishes to dance, but Vincent does not. Instead, Tarantino paints characters who possess morally grey compasses and exist between the binary idea of good vs evil.

In conclusion, Tarantino subverts both the audience’s and theorists’ preconceived notions of what a conventional narrative is made up of. Instead, he chooses to present the film in a refreshing and unique manner, utilising an array of narrative devices at his disposal whilst maintaining a sense of underlying individuality.

Pulp Fiction Contextualised

Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994) holds a highly influential place in the history of cinema. Winning the Palme d’Or at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival, the film was both a critical and commercial success. The film also revitalised the careers of both John Travolta and Bruce Willis, and its self-reflexivity and pastiche impacted the legacy of independent cinema forever.

To delve into Pulp Fiction’s cultural impact on cinema, we must first establish an understanding of the creative auteur behind it all: Quentin Tarantino.

While working in a video rental shop, Tarantino began his career by writing a number of screenplays after being encouraged by Lawrence Bender. Despite not amounting to a final product, this led to Tarantino gaining notoriety among producers. Because of this, he was able to write, direct, and act in Reservoir Dogs (1992) – a low-budget crime thriller featuring a dialogue-driven narrative set in a single location. Being screened at the Sundance festival that year, the film received immediate acclaim from critics.

Afterwards, Tarantino sold two of his previously written screenplays to studios to create both True Romance and Natural Born Killers, both of which featured Tarantino’s name heavily on the respective posters. Audiences soon eagerly await Tarantino’s next film, of which he kept important details other than the title – Pulp Fiction – under wraps. Upon release, the film received immediate critical acclaim and five Oscar nominations, with Tarantino winning the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. By this point, Tarantino had established himself as a highly prominent and notable auteur, going on to create seven more films, including: Kill Bill (2003), Django Unchained (2012) and Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019). Throughout Tarantino’s body of work, certain directorial tropes are ubiquitous throughout each, making the film indicative of Tarantino’s creative influence. Including nonlinearity, stylised violence, explicit language, and compiled scores featuring songs from the 1960s and 70s, many of these tropes can be traced back to the very start of his filmography.

Quentin Tarantino

With this in mind, Pulp Fiction can be defined as an experimental and postmodernist film. Featuring the majority of Tarantino’s directorial tropes, it acts as a prime exemplar of Tarantino’s body of work, establishing him as an auteur.

The film displays several interconnected storylines to the viewer in a nonlinear fashion now typical of Tarantino’s oeuvre. Cleverly building upon pre-conceived cliches of the crime genre, Pulp Fiction presents archetypal characters – such as a charismatic hitmen duo, a washed-up boxer, alongside a a stoic mob boss and his self-aware wife – in a fresh and unique narrative format.

A large portion of the dialogue featured throughout the film initially appears to be superfluous, as it doesn’t seem to drive the narrative forward in any meaningful direction. Considerable amounts of the film are dedicated to monologues centring around seemingly ‘mundane’ conversation topics, including: burgers, bible verses, and foot massages. In actuality, this dialogue richly characterises the archetypal characters of the crime genre presented to us. The dialogue has a snappy yet naturalistic style to it, through which the viewer is able to relate to and empathise with each of the characters on a deeper, parasocial level. This distinctive style of dialogue also further portrays Tarantino as an auteur, being present throughout his entire filmography.

The film additionally features very strong and graphic violence, a taboo that was seldom seen within the mainstream of cinema at the time. Being another common trope of Tarantino’s body of work, the extreme violence is presented in a humorous and exaggerated manner, creating a sense of irony.

Pulp Fiction’s status as a touchstone of postmodern cinema is due to a variety of factors – namely its extensive use of homage and pastiche to older works. Throughout the film, Tarantino makes subtle reference to many of his filmmaking inspirations – such as Hitchcock’s Psycho. The scene when Marcellus turns his head to see Butch in the car directly mirrors a similar scene from the 1960 classic. Similarly, the shot of the taxi licence when Butch is paying Esmeralda mirrors a similar shot in Taxi Driver (Martin Scorsese, 1976). Butch also uses katana to kill Maynard, a samurai sword seen throughout many Japanese films that inspired Tarantino, such as Seven Samurai (Akira Kurosawa, 1954).

Pulp Fiction and Psycho comparison

The film’s score is also entirely compiled, being made up of an eclectic soundtrack predominantly from the 1960s and 70s. For example, Dick Dale’s rendition of Misirlou is famously used during the opening credits of the film, with Tarantino stating that “it sounds like rock and roll spaghetti Western music”. Each and every song used by Tarantino throughout the film garnered a renewed surge in popularity, such as Urge Overkill’s cover of Girl, You’ll Be a Woman Soon. This further demonstrates Tarantino’s influence as an auteur.

Tarantino’s use of pastiche throughout the film also contributes to Pulp Fiction’s postmodern status. A famous scene in the film displays Mia and Vincent dancing the twist to Chuck Berry’s You Never Can Tell. The cinematography and choreography of the scene parodies a scene in Bande à part (Jean-Luc Goddard, 1964) in which the three main characters decide to spontaneously dance in a crowded cafe. Another example is Christopher Walken’s monologue to a young Butch about his time in a POW camp, pastiching his role in The Deer Hunter (Michael Camino, 1978).

Comparing Pulp Fiction and Bande à part

Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994)

Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994) is the second film in Tarantino’s filmography, and is heralded by many as his magnum opus. The film is a hybrid of many genres, namely crime and comedy, and features an eclectic cast including the likes of Samuel L. Jackson, John Travolta, Bruce Willis, and Uma Thurman.

The film displays several storylines in a nonlinear fashion now typical of Tarantino’s oeuvre. Cleverly building upon pre-conceived cliches of the crime genre, Pulp Fiction presents archetypal characters – such as charismatic hitmen, a prideful boxer, and a stoic mob boss – in a new and unique narrative format.

A large portion of the dialogue featured throughout the film appears to be superfluous, as it doesn’t seem to drive the narrative forward in any meaningful direction. Considerable amounts of the film are dedicated to monologues centring around seemingly ‘mundane’ conversational topics, including: burgers, bible verses, and foot massages. In actuality, this dialogue richly characterises the caricatures being portrayed – implying subtextual ideas throughout. Through this dialogue, the viewer is able to relate to each of the characters on a deeper, parasocial level. This distinctive style of dialogue also reinforces Tarantino as an auteur, being a cornerstone of his filmography.

The film additionally features very strong and graphic violence, a taboo that was seldom seen within the mainstream of cinema at the time. Being another common feature of Tarantino’s body of work, the extreme violence is presented in a humorous manner, creating a sense of irony. An example of this can be seen during the infamous “I shot Marvin in the face!” scene, during which an intensely gruesome event is portrayed through a light-hearted lens.

Personally, Pulp Fiction is one of my all-time favourite films. The enchanting characters in tandem with the jumbled narrative structure creates a wholly unique experience. I love the intricately crafted dialogue and the sense of enthralment every scene produces, but if I had to pick a favourite it would be Vincent’s untimely death halfway through the film.

Overall, I would rate Pulp Fiction ★★★★★.

Component 2d: Experimental Film 1960-2000

The fourth component we are studying is Component 2d: Experimental Film. This section of the course entails one film of study, Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994). Throughout this component, the areas of study are the core study areas (including the key elements, contexts, aesthetics and representation) as well as two specialist study areas – Auteurship and Narrative.

Being the french word for ‘author’, the concept of auteurship suggests the that each work of art is produced by a single artist alone. In concept, this auteur possesses full creative and artistic control over the film and thus, their ‘style’ becomes highly distinctive. Auteurs are often defined by specific reoccurring traits and techniques that appear throughout their body of work, placing their name above the film itself.

The second specialist study area, narrative, is centred around the discussion of how the story (the events that occur) is told through the plot (how the events are displayed to the viewer). Narrative is meticulously crafted by filmmakers, with techniques such as flashbacks, time skips and nonlinearity being employed. In effect, a nuanced narrative provides an intriguing and enthralling experience for the viewer.

Component 2d mind map

Production Diary: Production Idea

After viewing and blogging about each of the eighteen short films that make up the Eduqas Short Film Collection, the research stage of the coursework process is completed. It is now time to move onto the second element of coursework: pre-production, the first order of business being an outline of my production idea.

Idea

The keystones of my film idea involve the concepts of both Metacinema and breaking the fourth wall. The basic plot of the film depicts a student who is attempting to conceptualise an idea for a short film. Perhaps opening on an establishing shot of a house, the opening scene of the film will display the student sitting at a desk with an iPad, hopelessly unable to come up with an idea.

After displaying a closeup of blank Notes page, the student begins to type and we then cross-fade into a visual representation of what this idea is. We fade to a highly stereotypical horror chase scene in the woods, before coming to an abrupt end (perhaps a comedic resolution). Out of frustration, the student deletes the typed idea before leaving the desk. Coming back later, the student receives a message from his teacher urgently asking him to submit his idea before the deadline. As the student begins to type, we fade to another hypothetical idea involving a cliché scene of the romance genre in a café.

In a state of desperation, the student continues to frantically type as we rapidly cut to different scenarios in a sequence. The film ends with the reveal that the student’s final film idea is in fact the film that that you are watching.

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Due to the film involving the portrayal of multiple hypothetical narratives, my film could nicely classify under the ‘narrative which has parallel stories’ brief.

Aileen: Life And Death Of A Serial Killer (Nick Broomfield, 2003)

Aileen: Life and Death Of A Serial Killer (Nick Broomfield, 2003) is a performative documentary film that details the events leading up to Aileen Wuornos’ execution – America’s first female serial killer. The film is a follow-up to Broomfield’s previous film Aileen Wuornos: The Selling of a Serial Killer (1992) in which Broomfield attempts to interview Wuornos, and those around her who exploit her.

Throughout the film, Broomfield documents his relationship with Aileen and her family members through a variety of interviews. Alongside this, a large portion of the film is made up of Aileen’s courtroom hearings in which Nick Broomfield is summoned as a key witness. Broomfield additionally employs an assortment of news-reel footage in a non-linear manner to further inform the viewer of Aileen’s crimes. Interestingly, Aileen’s mental state can be seen to be visibly deteriorating over the course of the film.

This film could be considered a performative documentary due to Nick Broomfield’s heavy impact upon the events depicted throughout the film. Every event portrayed throughout the documentary can be traced back to Broomfield in one way or another.

The film grossed $16,158 after being released on three screens and received positive acclaim, receiving an 86% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.

Personally, I enjoyed the film to a certain extent and found Aileen’s hearings to be quite enjoyable and engaging. Despite this, I found many of the interviews to be relatively boring and unenjoyable – especially Aileen’s.

Overall, I would rate Aileen: Life And Death Of A Serial Killer ★★★.

Poster

Blackfish (Gabriela Cowperthwaite, 2013)

Blackfish (Gabriela Cowperthwaite, 2013) is an observational documentary centering around the controversy of keeping killer whales in captivity and the psychological damage imbued upon the wales themselves. We follow the orca, Tilikum and his restrictive life at the SeaWorld entertainment centre.

Poster

The documentary details Tilikum’s involvement in the deaths of three people at SeaWorld, covering his capture in 1983 and his harassment by fellow captive orcas at the entertainment centre. The film rebukes several claims made by SeaWorld concerning the lifespan of orcas in captivity, stating that killer whales have similar lifespans to humans in their natural habitat. A variety of former SeaWorld trainers are interviewed throughout the film, including John Hargrove who each detail their experiences with Tilikum and the tragedy caused by him as well as other captive whales.

A former SeaWorld member of staff being interviewed

The subject of whale captivity is framed in an extremely negative light, reporting that whales undergo utmost stress while in captivity. Alongside this, the separation of the whales’ offspring when captured in the wild adds further insult to injury to the suffering the whales must live through. Cowperthwaite uses a number of interesting techniques throughout the film, such as expressing different viewpoints through the process of interviewing. Additionally, the medium of animation is used to recreate specific court cases as well as to make the process of whale capturing clearer for the viewer to visualise. The narrative of the documentary is relatively nonlinear, jumping between the date of Tilikum’s capture to the deaths of several trainers. This places the narrative in a more immediate position and places the viewer within the context of each situation.

Tilikum pictured with Dawn Brancheau, one of the wale’s three victims

The film premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival and was then acquired by Magnolia Pictures and CNN for a wider release. With a Rotten Tomatoes score of 98%, the site states that “Blackfish is an aggressive, impassioned documentary that will change the way you look at performance killer whales.” Alongside this, SeaWorld suffered a $15.9 million loss and attendance declined by 5% in the first 9 months of 2013. This implies that Blackfish had a considerable impact upon the negative decline of SeaWorld as a tourist attraction.

Personally, I enjoyed Blackfish from start to finish. Prior to watching, I had little to no interest in the subject matter of orca captivity but this documentary managed to effectively spread awareness of the issue at hand. In saying this, no specific sequences particularly stood out to me and the documentary felt unnecessarily hard to follow at certain points. I believe that the underlying message that Gabriela Cowperthwaite was trying to convey was the persistent and unnoticed oppression towards killer whales and that the captivity of their species for our entertainment is inherently wrong.

Overall, I would rate Blackfish ★★★★.

Documentaries Defined

The dictionary defines a documentary as a film that “us[es] pictures or interviews with people involved in real events to provide a factual report on a particular subject.”

Realism is a concept that is portrayed throughout both fiction and documentary films. Whereas a fiction film may deviate from complete authenticity throughout its narrative to suit its particular purpose, a documentary film attempts to capture the absolute truth of the subject matter. In effect, a documentary strives to provide a highly informative and educational piece of media for a wide audience to consume.

Bill Nichols, a documentary theorist, stated that all films fall into one of two categories of documentary. These include ‘wish fulfilment’ (fiction films) and ‘social representation’ (what we would typically refer to a documentary as). Nichols claims that even the most fictitious work provides an accurate report of the culture and society it was produced under. Alongside this, the actors and physical locations utilised are authentically represented, according to Nichols. On the flip side, Nichols believes that documentaries are often as exciting and dramatic as fiction films and generally less predictable, due to the fact that they draw their subject matter from reality.

With this in mind, it is sometimes difficult to differentiate between these two forms of filmmaking. This is due to many documentaries using a number of dramatic techniques from fiction films to recreate a truthful event in an entertaining manner. Conversely, a fiction film may borrow a variety of techniques utilised throughout documentaries in order to make the events of the film appear to be more authentic and nonfictional.

To reinforce this idea, it is important to establish a scale. On one end of the scale is an entirely fictitious film, produced for the sole purpose of entertainment with no regard for realism or authenticity. On the other end is a ‘pure documentary’ which is entirely nonfictional and produced for the sole purpose of education on a particular subject matter. In between these two extremes is a large grey area, brought to light by Bill Nichols. This area includes a wide variety of aforementioned films, including a seemingly fictional dramatisation of truthful events as well as an entirely fictional narrative which purports a sense of authenticity, due to the techniques employed by the filmmakers.

Fiction or documentary?

There are a wide variety of differences between a typical ‘fiction film’ and a feature length documentary film. In the table below, I have listed the main discrepancies between the two types of film, centering around a key aspect of filmmaking in each point.

Fiction Films

Mise-en-scène (locations, props, costumes, etc) can be real (shot on location) or “faked” in a studio.

Characters’ dialogue and actions are pre-conceptualised by a screenwriter and usually played by an actor.

Professional equipment is used throughout (such as dollies, rigs, Steadicam etc.) to fully immerse the viewer within the fictional world of the film. The equipment is invisible to the viewer.

The filmmaker typically has an ambitious creative vision for what their film will entail, often disregarding a sense of reality. They are behind-the-scenes and invisible to the viewer.

The narrative’s structure, dialogue and events are preconceived and conceptualised in a fictional manner.

Often attempt to attract the largest possible audience. The viewer accepts the artificial and fictitious nature.

Typically has a larger budget, due to the requirement for more expensive equipment.

Documentary Films

Mise-en-scène is found in real life.

Documentary films do not contain characters, only real people and events are portrayed throughout – the dialogue appears to be genuine.

Bare minimum equipment (handheld camera, tripod etc.) is typically used to create a sense of authenticity.

The filmmaker attempts to capture the most accurate reality possible in a documentary, often displaying the crew behind the scenes. The filmmaker often appears in the documentary, sometimes even being the focus.

The narrative events unfold in real time, the filmmakers often do not plan the documentary in advance.

Often attract a niche audience, the viewer expects truthfulness and transparency.

Typically has a smaller budget, as expensive equipment is not needed.

A typical documentary set

Wild Tales (Damián Szifron, 2014)

Wild Tales (Damián Szifron, 2014) is an Argentinian comedy/drama of the portmanteau genre. The film contains six short ‘tales’ which are all connected by the thematic concepts of revenge, catharsis and vengeance.

Each tale varies in length, setting and narrative. These include a plane hijacking, an attempted poisoning, a discontented engineer, a hit and run and an extremely chaotic wedding. The plots are told through a variety of interesting narrative techniques, prioritising the “show don’t tell” cornerstone of storytelling throughout each of the tales. I also noticed that the lighting of each of the tales seemed oddly vibrant and superficial which emphasises the grandiose theatricality of each of the stories.

The stories themselves each follow a similar narrative structure, gradually introducing the concept and characters through subtle pieces of information which ultimately builds to a dramatic crescendo. Information is deliberately hidden from the viewer in order to create an immensely satisfying conclusion within each of the six tales.

“Haste que la muerte nos separe” (Till Death Do Us Part)

Four of the six stories were partially based on real-life situations director Damián Szifron experienced throughout his life. After its release, the film received a large amount of critical acclaim, exemplifying the portmanteau genre attempted to great success. The film received a number of accolades, including the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language.

Personally, I thoroughly enjoyed Wild Tales from start to finish. I was fully engaged within each of the six stories and although I definitely preferred some of the tales to others, each had something new to bring to the table. Unfortunately, I thought that some stories ended prematurely and in an unsatisfying manner but this did not detract from my overall enjoyment of the film.

My personal favourite of the tales was the third story: “El más fuerte” (The Strongest) as I was utterly enthralled by its simple but gripping narrative. Each action that occurs within this story is just as unpredictable as the last and I was kept on edge for the entire duration of the narrative.

I believe that Szifron’s main message conveyed throughout the film is that revenge is not always the correct course of action. Throughout each tale, Szifron demonstrates to the viewer that the act of vengeance often provokes the animalistic impulses within our instinctive human nature, and often leads to violence and destruction.

Overall, I would rate Wild Tales ★★★★.