After film was popularised during the 1910s, it soon went from being a ‘seaside attraction’ to a commercial and vastly popular form of mass entertainment. This occurred through the death of music hall as a form of entertainment, during which cinemas overtook the buildings that were previously music halls. American entrepreneurs soon began to view film as a grand business opportunity first and foremost, rather than an art form.
Over the course of the 20th Century, film in America undertook a variety of forms. Throughout the 1910s, short films known as ‘two-reelers’ were the most popular form of entertainment. Focusing particularly on comedy, action, and romance, this style of filmmaking was perfected by the silent stars of the 1920s, such as Buster Keaton.
Film’s exponential gain in popularity over the course of the 1920s led to a drastic rise in competition, ultimately forming the ‘Big Five’ film studios that dominated the playing field. Each studio attempted to provide a sense of differentiation, offering bigger budgets, more exotic filming locations as well as featuring the most prolific stars. The studios also implemented the business tactic of vertical integration, with each studio overseeing and taking ownership of every stage of film production. Studios contracted screenwriters, editors, actors and even entire cinemas in an attempt to monopolise the film industry. Through this, both the ‘studio system’ and ‘star system’ were established.
Four film stars in particular were extremely unhappy with the state of the studio system, claiming that the studios collected an inordinate amount of money from the booming film business. D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks collectively founded United Artists – a company premised on allowing actors to control their own line of work, rather than being fully dependant upon the domineering film studios.
D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks founding United Artists
The concept of narrative involves the discussion of a variety of collective ideas that link to how the story of a film is presented to the viewer, alongiside how the story is internalised. This blog will explain the key narrative functions, as well as how Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994), in many cases, does not conform to these narrative conventions.
Story, plot, and narrative
The overall concept of narrative can be subdivided into three ideas: story, plot, and narrative.
Story is defined as “everything that happens in the fictional world between the beginning and the end, including events that viewers infer or presume to have happened”. In essence, this means that story is the collection of narrative events that both occur and are implied throughout the film.
Plot is defined as “what viewers see on screen and hear on the soundtrack to allow them to construct a story in their heads. Plots can begin anywhere on the chain of story events and can leap backwards and forwards in time and space.” Plot expands upon the initial concept of ‘story’ by introducing the idea of the viewer’s internal contextualisation of narrative events. Plot also hints at the idea of nonlinearity, which suggests that not all stories must be told in a rigidly chronological order.
Narrative is defined as “the flow of story information constructed by the plot at any given moment. Narrative implies a point of view, which may be that of one of the characters or of an omniscient, all-seeing narrator.” Narrative introduces the idea of using different character perspectives in order to enrich the meaning of a film. Switching perspectives often gives the viewer new insight into the characters’ motivations, as well as the meaning behind the events occurring onscreen.
In the case of Pulp Fiction, Tarantino utilises each of these narrative elements in order to create a unique and satisfying experience. The story of the film is relatively simple, with the film containing four episodic chapters with intertwining characters and events. On the other hand, the plot of the film is constructed in a highly nonlinear and convoluted manner. Although each chapter itself has a linear structure, the order in which it is shown to the viewer is non-chronological. This fragmentation of the plot creates an underlying sense of anticipation. Due to the fact that the viewer is witnessing events out of order, we expect to see the repercussions of these events later in the film.
Pulp Fiction also uses the aforementioned multi-character perspective idea, affecting the narrative of the film. For example, the restaurant robbery scene is displayed to us initially from the perspectives of Pumpkin and Honey Bunny, thus diverting our attention towards the pair as characters. We are engaged by their conversation suggesting a potential robbery and are subsequently teased by the very start of it. Tarantino provides closure on this event at the very end of the film, during which Jules and Vincent are the central focus. We now root for them, as the narrative focus has been shifted, affecting the viewer’s perception of events. On the surface, Pulp Fiction’s multiple storylines could be considered ‘clichéd’ or archetypal, due to each event that occurs being nothing that is wholly original. The predominant pleasure that the film provides is ultimately the meticulously crafted narrative structure.
The Three Act Structure
Another touchstone of storytelling is the three act structure – a model widely utilised throughout fiction. Dividing a narrative into three clear-cut sections, the typical structure involves three acts (setup, confrontation, resolution). In the case of Pulp Fiction, each chapter of the film loosely follows this structure. For example, during Butch’s story: Act 1 displays Butch being paid by Marsellus to throw his next fight, Act 2 is the sequence in which Butch returns to his apartment through to the pawn shop scene, finally concluding with Act 3 in which Butch saves Marsellus and returns to Fabienne.
By only displaying fragmented acts of the multiple storylines in quick succession, Tarantino subverts the viewer’s preconceived expectations of what a typical narrative structure entails.
Types of Narrative
There are three main types of narrative, being: linear, circular, and episodic.
Linear narrative “starts at the beginning, and continues in the order that events happen up to the end.” This is the most conventional and simple narrative structure, displaying events in a straight forward and chronological order.
Circular narrative “starts at the end, then goes back in time to return to this point later on.” This is an interesting story structure, creating an immediate narrative hook to reel in the viewer’s attention. Over the course of the film, this memory of this event will linger in the viewer’s mind and a sense of satisfaction will be provided when the event is finally reprised. A example of this can be seen in Pan’s Labyrinth (Guillermo del Toro, 2006). Ofelia’s death is initially displayed to the viewer in reverse at the very start of the film, and is later returned to at the end, by which point we understand the context surrounding the previously shocking and unexpected event.
Episodic narrative “has clearly separated sections, often broken up by a title, date, or a cutback to a narrator.” This allows a film to tell more than one story, perhaps in a portmanteau style. An example of this can be seen in Wild Tales (Damián Szifron, 2014) in which five stories are told, each connected by the theme of revenge.
In the case of Pulp Fiction, Tarantino utilises elements of all three modes of narrative throughout the film. For example, large chunks of the film are displayed in a wholly linear fashion, such as Vincent and Mia’s date, during which Tarantino employs techniques such as continuity editing. The narrative of the film could also be considered circular, due to the fact that the the robbery scene in the diner acts as both a prologue and epilogue section. Pulp Fiction could also be considered episodic too, seeing as the film is broken down into chapters that are signalled by intertitles.
Pulp Fiction’s narrative structure
Prolepsis (flash-forward) and Analepsis (flashback)
A pair of techniques that are often utilised within storytelling are prolepsis and analepsis.
Prolepsis (often referred to as a flash-forward) is a “temporal edit to a later point in time”. This dramatic device can be used to foreshadow and tease future events to the viewer.
Conversely, analepsis (often referred to as a flashback) is a “temporal edit to an earlier point in time”. Analepsis can be utilised to perhaps provide contextual information, displaying past events that will become relevant to the current narrative at a later point.
Tarantino uses both prolepsis and analepsis at specific points throughout Pulp Fiction. Namely, a flash-forward sequence occurs during The Bonnie Situation. This hypothetical sequence displays Bonnie returning home from work to find the gangsters handling a body in the living room. A flashback is used as a preface to Butch’s story – Captain Koons monologues to a young Butch, explaining the importance of the titular gold watch. This later contextualises Butch’s return to the apartment in order to reclaim this watch.
Ellipsis
This narrative device is defined as “the emission of a section of the story that is either obvious enough for the audience to fill in, or concealed for a narrative purpose, such as suspense or mystery”. Ellipsis is widely used throughout film, leaving the viewer to frequently assume that events have occurred. For example, unless it possesses significant importance, a character’s physical journey from point A to point B is not usually displayed to the viewer due to the fact that we can safely assume how they reached this destination. Ellipsis is also used for much more dramatic purposes, such as in 2001: A Space Odyssey (Stanley Kubrick, 1968) in which Kubrick famously match cuts from a spinning bone to a spaceship, effectively fast-forwarding the entire evolution of humankind.
Pulp Fiction uses ellipses to withhold important information from the viewer at specific points in the film, ultimately providing a sense of gratification when the viewer pieces the events together. A clear example of this is during the shared prologue and epilogue of the film – the diner scene. During the prologue, we are only aware of Pumpkin and Honey Bunny’s presence and only later learn during the epilogue that Jules and Vincent are in fact sitting in the same location.
Kubrick’s famous bone-to-spaceship match cut
Narrative Viewpoint
Narrative viewpoint is the lens through which we view the plot. There are three main types of narrative, being: restricted, unrestricted/omniscient, and voiceover/narrative.
A restricted narrative viewpoint is when “the audience only know as much as the main character.” This viewpoint is often used to create a sense of mystery; due to the viewer only having the knowledge of the protagonist they are also encouraged to connect with them on a deeper level.
An unrestricted/omniscient viewpoint is when “the audience sees aspects of the narrative that the main character does not.” This type of viewpoint often creates dramatic irony – a useful narrative device that creates tension and suspense.
Voiceover/narration is “an omniscient or subjective non diegetic verbal commentary.” Narration is often used in films such as Fight Club (David Fincher, 1999) and GoodFellas (Martin Scorsese, 1990) to provide a direct line of communication between the characters and the viewer. However, voiceover often provides a biased perspective on events. Despite this, the two aforementioned films utilise this to their advantage.
Tarantino combines both restricted and unrestricted viewpoints throughout Pulp Fiction, providing a sense of satisfaction for the viewer in both cases. An example of a restricted viewpoint in the film is during the scene where Jules and Vincent collect the briefcase from the apartment. During this scene, the viewer is unaware that there is a man in the bathroom with a gun and we only learn this fact once we return to the scene later in the film.
An unrestricted viewpoint used in the film is the scene where Mia overdoses on heroin. Earlier in the film, Vincent is displayed buying powered heroin from Lance. At Mia’s apartment, Vincent leaves this heroin on the table, prompting Mia to snort a line after getting back from Jack Rabbit Slim’s, as she assumes that it is cocaine. With the use of an omnipotent narrative viewpoint, Tarantino creates dramatic irony during this scene, establishing suspense and drama.
Narrative Devices
These are an assortment of techniques used frequently throughout storytelling for a variety of intended effects. These include title cards, intertitles, chaptering, and audience positioning.
Title cards are “printed contextual text at the start of the film”. Pulp Fiction opens with a dictionary definition of “pulp”, displaying the two meanings to the viewer. The first meaning is “a soft, moist, shapeless mass of matter” which perhaps hints at the overall narrative structure of the film. The second definition, “a magazine or book containing lurid subject matter and being characteristically printed on rough, unfinished paper” is suggestive of the “Pulp Fiction” present throughout. The events and characters are both highly archetypal and cliched, and this idea is immediately suggested by the dictionary title card.
The second narrative devices is intertiles, which are instances of “printed text or narration shown between scenes”. Popularised by silent filmmakers such as Buster Keaton, this technique was to convey expositional information that could not be told through silent action. As such, intertiles are not present throughout Pulp Fiction.
Chaptering is the “division of a narrative into distinct, labelled units.” Linking to the aforementioned episodic narrative structure, this narrative device allows filmmakers to present multiple, clear-cut storylines. Tarantino employs chaptering to divide the three interconnected storylines into distinct episodes of the film. These chapters include “Vincent Vega and Marcellus Wallace’s Wife”, “The Gold Watch”, and “The Bonnie Situation”.
Audience positioning is a nuanced and engaging narrative device that involves “how the narrative encourages or discourages audience sympathies and reactions.” In Pulp Fiction, this causes the viewer to empathise with different characters in different ways at different times. The characters, who we initially view as mere archetypes of the crime genre, are thus humanised by how Tarantino positions the audience. We enjoy being in the company of Vincent and Jules, two highly repugnant gangsters who kill people for money are presented as a charismatic and comedic duo. The viewer is encouraged to sympathise with an array of despicable characters who we initially wouldn’t.
Conversely, characters such as Zed and Maynard are positioned as antagonistic forces during Butch’s story, despite perhaps being no worse than the protagonists that we root for. The audience is also positioned to view different characters as the ‘protagonist’ during certain section of the film. For example, we subconsciously root for Pumpkin and Honey Bunny during the prologue, but support Jules and Vincent during the epilogue as the couple are framed as the antagonists within the reprise of the scene. The focus often shifts fluidly without the viewer noticing, an example being when the shift focuses from Vincent onto Mia when they return to the apartment.
The ‘pulp’ dictionary definition title card
Narrative Theories and Theorists
A number of narrative theorists formulated specific theories concerning storytelling, characters and structure. These include Vladimir Propp, Tzvetan Todorov, Roland Barthes, and Claude Levi-Strauss. Taking these theories into account, it becomes clear that Pulp Fiction does not conform to typical narrative conventions.
Vladimir Propp was a Soviet literary theorist who studied Russian folklore and created two narrative theories. He first theorised the concept of the seven character archetypes that all characters in fiction must conform to. These include the Hero, Villain, Princess, Donor, Dispatcher, Helper, and the False Hero. Each of these character types supposedly serve a specific purpose in each narrative. In Pulp Fiction’s case, Tarantino does not conform to the idea of the seven character types due to the fact that we do not follow a single journey, and each character in the film fulfils multiple roles at particular times.
Propp’s second theory involved the idea of 31 narrative functions that every story would contain at least some of, in a particular pre-conceived order. Again, this theory does not apply to Pulp Fiction seeing as the theory only applies to stories told in a chronological order.
Tzvetan Todorov was a Bulgarian-French historian who created the ‘Equilibrium Theory’, stating that every story is made up five stages. These include equilibrium, disruption of equilibrium, recognition of disruption, resolution, and new equilibrium. Once again, this theory does not apply to Pulp Fiction – its fragmented narrative subverts both this theory alongside the viewer’s prior knowledge of narrative structure.
Roland Barthes was a French essayist who created the ‘Narrative Codes Theory’, stating that all stories are made up of two types of codes. Firstly, the ‘action code’ involves a physical event that is displayed, prompting the viewer to ponder the consequences of it. An example of an action code in Pulp Fiction is the scene where Vincent accidentally shoots Marvin in the face. The viewer is left in awe of this shocking event, causing them to possess an intrigue as to what the consequences might be.
The second type of code created by Barthes is the ‘enigma code’. This idea depicts an intriguing event that creates a sense of mystery, and prompts the viewer to acquire an interest in unravelling the mystery. Tarantino employs this idea in Pulp Fiction by using the elusive briefcase to create a sense of intrigue. Furthermore, the viewer never actually finds out what is in the briefcase, letting the mystery remain unsolved forever.
Claude Lévi-Strauss was a French anthropologist who created the theory of ‘Binary Opposition’. He argued that audience engagement is driven by tension between binary opposites, such as: good vs evil, race, and social rankings. Whilst binary opposites are not a prominent theme featured throughout Pulp Fiction, certain predicaments do arise from opposing views – an example being when Mia wishes to dance, but Vincent does not. Instead, Tarantino paints characters who possess morally grey compasses and exist between the binary idea of good vs evil.
In conclusion, Tarantino subverts both the audience’s and theorists’ preconceived notions of what a conventional narrative is made up of. Instead, he chooses to present the film in a refreshing and unique manner, utilising an array of narrative devices at his disposal whilst maintaining a sense of underlying individuality.
La Ricotta (Pier Paolo Pasolini, 1962) is a 35-minute Italian short film starring the acclaimed Orson Welles, who plays the director (an exaggerated impersonation of Pasolini himself) of a production of the Passion of Jesus. The main character, however, is Stracci – a penurious and starving extra on the set of the film. After attempting to scavenge the set for food, Stracci eventually finds a bountiful amount of ricotta cheese that he immediately gorges on. This turns out to be a fatal mistake, as Stracci tragically but ironically dies on the set while being ‘crucified’.
The film’s primary objective is to serve as a social commentary for the marginalisation of the poor. Pasolini believed that the poor were neglected by a society that prided themselves on being Christian. Pasolini’s portrayal of a production of the Passion is his critique of a corrupt society that is merely interested in garnering superficial reputability. This is demonstrated to the viewer through the actors’ disinterest in the production itself and their lazy and tormenting behaviour during their breaks.
Pasolini incorporates a number of techniques throughout the film in order to create meaning. Stracci’s desperation for food is conveyed to the viewer through fast-motion footage of his dire runs for food, this exaggerated physical comedy being reminiscent of Buster Keaton. In addition, the film is shot in black and white for the majority of its runtime and colour is exclusively utilised to display the production of the Passion of Jesus.
The production of the Passion of Christ portrayed throughout La Ricotta (shot in colour)
Due to technical difficulties, I was originally unable to extrapolate any meaning from La Ricotta and thus did not receive any sort of enjoyment from the film. After conducting research, the film’s meaning ultimately demonstrated to me the effectiveness of social commentary within a short film.
Throughout Cops (1922), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.
Realist
The film is shot on location, depicting the bustling streets of Los Angeles near the film studio.
The costume design seen throughout is an accurate representation of the time period, being evocative of the 1920s.
The film was produced during the proceedings of Fatty Arbuckle’s rape-and-murder trial. Being a silent star of the 1910s who brought Keaton into the limelight, it was clear that Keaton certainly had this on his mind as the film developed. Throughout the film, his character never comes out on top (despite his good intentions), police are presented in an extremely negative light, he does not ‘get the girl’ and his death is implied through the end card. This illustrates a sense of hopelessness over the duration of the film.
The opening long take of Keaton behind bars is a static wide shot, allowing the viewer to freely direct their attention between Keaton and Virginia Fox. Keaton is displayed as being ‘locked out’ from the upper class.
Keaton has a brief encounter with a man on the side of the road pretending to be kicked out by his wife, which could be considered a realist scenario.
Keaton uses a long take to display the two characters loading the furniture onto the carriage, utilising deep focus so that the viewer is able to direct their attention between both characters.
Keaton’s insolent behaviour towards the policeman depicted throughout the film is representative of America’s disrespectful attitude towards authority.
‘Gland larceny’ is briefly referenced when Keaton is seen taking his horse to a goat gland specialist. During the year of release, at least three men in America fell victim to testicle theft. Here, Keaton is referencing a real event that audiences would’ve been aware of in a light-hearted manner.
A multitude of long take wide shots display an overwhelming number of policeman, allowing the viewer to be in awe of the intimidating force.
Keaton smokes a cigarette as he rides into the police procession, demonstrating the popularity of tobacco in America.
The seesaw gag is filmed with a long take long shot with deep focus, allowing us to focus on both the seesaw in the foreground and the policemen in the background.
As previously mentioned, the ending of Cops is much darker in tone and, arguably more realist too. Keaton is rejected by Fox and death is implied through the end card.
The titular ‘cops’ are filmed with a static long take
Expressive
The alliterative opening intertitle (“love laughs at locksmiths”) is accompanied by an expressive illustration of Cupid shooting a lock. Houdini’s quote naturally transitions into the opening scene of the film, establishing the premise.
The opening shot of the film is particularly interesting, as Keaton’s clever framing allows the audience to believe that he is physically trapped behind bars, foreshadowing the later events. In reality, Keaton’s character is metaphorically ‘locked out’ from his girlfriends’s family, who represents the upper class.
A brief but hyperbolic slapstick exchange involving a wallet is unrealistic, but creates humour.
A closeup of the man sitting on the curb displays his highly exaggerated, superficial expression. This example of the Kuleshov Effect informs us of his devious intentions.
A fade to black signifies the passage of time, after which the furniture is loaded onto the carriage.
As the vase is unable to fit in the suitcase, Keaton’s clumsiness leads a piece breaking off in order for it to fit. This expertly sets up the next gag of the other vase falling off the carriage, creating a comical punchline.
Keaton uses a boxing glove to serve as a makeshift indicator, as to not be bitten by a dog. This exaggerated mise-en-scène creates absurdist comedy. Keaton proceeds to punch a policeman with the same glove, demonstrating slapstick humour.
An iris closeup of the Goat Gland Specialist sign focuses our attention towards the absurdly comical service.
An intertitle contextualises the ensuing events of the police parade for the viewer.
Parallel editing is incorporated between Keaton on his horse and the police parade, manipulating the viewer into believing that the events are occurring simultaneously .
Keaton continues to use expressive mise-en-scène through the use of the bomb prop which is a highly stereotypical depiction of an explosive. Through a closeup of the bomb, the viewer’s emotions are manipulated as they anticipate the bomb’s explosion.
As the chase between Keaton and the policeman ensues, fast motion is employed by Keaton in order to hyperbolise the situation for comedic effect. His use of elaborate choreography and blocking accentuates the ambitious set piece. The sheer amount of homogenous policemen in once place heightens the effect of the gag.
The pace of editing quickens as the events of the chase become increasingly hectic.
The water that spurts from the fire hydrant is comically vigorous and highly exaggerated.
Keaton is able to contort his body into a small chest effortlessly which heightens the absurdity of the situation.
The elaborate seesaw gag plays with balance, symmetry and framing in order to provide a daring visual spectacle. Keaton proceeds to fly through the air, further reinforcing the absurdity of the situation.
Keaton’s small figure starkly juxtaposes the overwhelming congregation of policemen as he is chased through the streets. Keaton’s athleticism is reinforced as he slides under one of the policemen’s legs.
The final shot of the film depicts a gravestone, unrealistically emblazoned with ‘THE END’. Keaton’s pork pie hat is propped up against it, signifying his apparent death at the end of the film.
Seesaw gag plays with symmetry and balance, but is also filmed with a static wide shot and deep focus
Throughout The High Sign (1921), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.
Realist
The film is shot on location, depicting the populous streets of LA.
The costume design is also authentic, being evocative of the 1920s.
Keaton’s character is kicked off the train – his train-hopping demonstrates a realist issue in society. Paupers snuck onto trains as a mode of transportation in order to seek work in the city.
The merry-go-round seen within the film was a popular attraction during the time period.
The newspaper featured within the film represents the fact that it was the most common form of media during the time period. Furthermore, the advert in the paper is symbolic of nationwide employment across the country.
Keaton’s disrespectful behaviour towards the policeman is demonstrative of America’s negative attitude towards authority. The gag is also shot with a long take using deep focus, so that the viewer is able to freely focus upon the scene as they see fit.
The shooting gallery, a key location within the film, informs us that they were relatively common attractions found throughout the Jazz Age of America.
The primary antagonistic force of the film are the Blinking Buzzards. This comical gang is a representation of the presence of organised crime throughout 1920s America. The planned assassination of August Nickelnurser epitomises the many assassinations carried out which were primarily driven by political gain. This lawless society was established due to many ex-soldiers living a life of violence and corruption after the events of WW1, hyperbolised by the character of Tiny Tim within the film.
Within the films, characters can be seen drinking alcohol from flasks which demonstrates the effects of the Prohibition Era (1920).
A long take wide shot of August and Sybil introducing themselves to Keaton is used, allowing the viewer to freely observe each character.
The butler in August’s house is representative of the divide between social class that existed during the time period.
The four rooms of the funhouse are filmed with a static wide shot. The deep focus allows the viewer to focus upon each of the four rooms separately.
The four rooms filmed with deep focus
Expressive
The opening intertitle details the origins of Keaton’s character with the language “Nowhere, Anywhere, Somewhere”, which evokes a sense of ambiguity.
Keaton falls of the freight train in unrealistic and exaggerated manner.
The comically large newspaper gag is very surrealist and heightens the comedic value of the scene. The ensuing closeup of the paper also introduces us to Tiny Tim.
The banana gag is cartoonish and unrealistic – Keaton use of absurd expression manipulates the viewer’s emotions.
Keaton’s shooting of the bottles is hyperbolically inaccurate, shattering the illusion of reality. Keaton further accentuates the the gag by shooting a seagull out of the sky, which is achieved through the employment of special effects.
Fast motion is utilised as the man runs away to create a sense of cartoonish light-heartedness.
A closeup of the dentist sign allows the viewer to read the ‘Dr Pullem’ sign, an example of a comical pun.
Tiny Tim turns out to be very large, dwarfing Keaton in the frame. This subversion of the viewer’s expectations creates a comical realisation. Tim also wears dark makeup, this example of mise-en-scène foreshadows his antagonistic behaviour revealed later in the film.
An intertitle introduces us to the Blinking Buzzards through the use of absurdly hyperbolic alliteration. (Brutal bungalow of Blinking Buzzards, a bold bad bunch etc.)
Keaton employs parallel editing between his character in the shooting gallery and the Buzzards in their lair, contextualising the simultaneously occurring events to the viewer’s.
The ransom letter delivered to August is displayed with a closeup using vignette. This, alongside appropriate reading time, manipulates the viewer into reading the letter.
The iconic Blinking Buzzard hand sign featured throughout the film endearingly mocks stereotypical gang signs through Keaton’s use of choreography.
Parallel editing is employed between Keaton in the shooting gallery, the dog ringing the bell and Tiny Tim’s reaction as to fully contextualise the gag for the viewer.
Keaton briefly breaks the fourth wall by directly looking at the camera as he realises he has become a double agent, this is a knowing acknowledgement of the audience.
Keaton hangs his hat onto the wall by manifesting a peg by painting one onto the wall. Due to the gag being so surrealist and physically impossible to achieve in reality, comedy is instilled within the viewer. This can also be seen within a similar scene, in which Keaton smokes a pipe that appears to be part of a painted backdrop at the shooting gallery.
A fade to black signifies the passage of time between events.
The prior banana gag makes a reappearance as the policeman attempts to use his gun on Tiny Tim, creating fulfilling humour. As the peel is dropped on the floor, no one slips over it which subverts the viewer’s expectations of a classic cliché.
August’s house is full of elaborate contraptions and secret getaways. Including the likes of revolving wall panels, trapdoors and hidden corridors, this expressive mise-en-scène lends itself to Keaton’s surrealist and abstract comedy.
A classic Keaton chase sequence ensues within the house, demonstrating his daring athleticism and establishing comical slapstick humour.
A shot using vignette plays with the viewer’s perspective, the viewer is able to view both rooms simultaneously in order for the joke to be told most effectively.
One of the gang members’ head becomes stuck in the door, reinforcing the absurdist nature of the film.
The final scene of the film is subversive as the viewer does not know which side Keaton is on until the very last second.
Throughout The Scarecrow (1920), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.
Realist
The costume design used throughout is an accurate representation of 1920s America.
A multitude of commonly-found domestic appliances exist within the house, including: a record player, oven and a mirror.
One of the intertitles remarks upon women getting the vote in 1919, a recently occurring significant historical event at the time of release.
Coin operated gas meters were frequently found within apartment buildings, depicting a realist display of working class living standards.
As Keaton sets the table, a static long shot with deep focus captures the scene, providing an unbiased, objective view of the room. The viewer is able to freely view the frame.
The elaborate dual-function contraptions found within the house reference the illustrations of Rube Goldberg, which were popularised during the timeframe of release.
Both of the main characters are farmers, representing the poverty-stricken society of the time period. The laborious manual labour the characters must endure is juxtaposed by the Rube Goldberg machinery.
Both characters also wish to impress the same girl, demonstrating the patriarchal society of the time period, in addition to the duty held by many to settle down and start a family.
The film is shot on location, depicting a realist rural setting.
The chase sequence is filmed with a static long shot with deep focus, allowing the viewer to ‘cut with their eyes’.
The wild dog that appears within the film were commonly found within the 1920s rural setting depicted throughout the film. In addition, Keaton’s character fears the possibility of the dog being rabid – rabies being a commonly occurring disease within dogs during this time.
The titular scarecrow gag involves a commonly found decoy throughout American farmsteads with alcohol in its pocket. This is perhaps symbolic of the initiation of the Prohibition Era, which came into effect during the year of release (1920).
During the kicking gag, the camera remains static. This allows the viewer to freely focus upon each of the three actors as they see fit.
An unbiased, objective view of the room achieved by using deep focus
Expressive
The opening intertitle establishes the rural setting by illustratively describing the scene (“slowly and majestically the sun steals gradually over the hill-tops”) evoking a sense of romanticised pastoral imagery of the 1920s.
The opening wide shot of the sunrise is shot with fast motion, Keaton’s use of hyperbolic mise-en-scène symbolically illustrates the dawn of a new day.
A number of iris shots are utilised throughout the film, each directing the viewer’s attention towards a particular character or object.
Keaton’s loose tooth is conveyed to the viewer by an exaggerated head bandage, additionally setting up the slapstick door gag. Keaton alternates between wide shots and reactionary closeups as to direct the viewer’s attention towards the punchline of a joke.
The Rube Goldberg-inspired contraptions (including the fence prop) found within the house are extremely hyperbolic and unrealistic. These contraptions are used to create a sequence of surrealist gags, which are reminiscent of vaudeville theatre.
During the meal between Keaton and Roberts, the pair’s movements are highly choreographed in order to heighten the effect of the abstract gag.
The family of ducks bathing in the waste water is a highly unrealistic situation staged by Keaton in order to produce a comedic effect. This is also used to set up a later gag involving Keaton falling in the water in classic slapstick fashion.
An introductory closeup of Sybil’s character immediately focuses the viewer’s attention towards her.
The pace of editing quickens and fast motion is employed as the chase sequence ensues, manipulating the viewer’s emotions.
Roberts miraculously manages to survive the impact of being run over, this unrealistic scenario successfully creates comedy. He is later seen on comically hyperbolic crutches and immediately knocked over again, further accentuating the gag.
The scarecrow gag relies upon the viewer’s manipulated perspective in order to land. We are unable to see Keaton from the front, we therefore do not know he is the scarecrow. As the joke is repeated a second time, the viewer is in on the joke, creating a sense of comedic fulfilment.
Keaton demonstrates his daring athleticism by impressively walking through the river on his hands, juxtaposing Roberts’ comical fall.
The ‘accidental proposal’ is unrealistically successful, heightening the sheer absurdity of the scenario.
The fake horse gag further increases the sense of idiosyncrasy Keaton possesses.
The vicar just so happens to be conveniently standing on the side of the road, this unrealistic scenario further accentuates the expressive nonsensicality of the film.
The final iris shot centralises the viewer’s attention onto Keaton placing the makeshift wedding ring on Sybil’s finger.
The marriage between the two characters is comical due to the extremely unrealistic situation in which they find themselves
Throughout One Week (1920), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.
Realist
The film is shot on location, meaning it is an accurate representation of America in the 1920s.
Throughout the long shot of bride and groom walking down the steps, the camera remains in a static position. The viewer is not manipulated to direct their attention towards anything in particular.
The rice throwing exhibited at the wedding captures a genuine cultural tradition present within 1920s America.
Keaton’s character picks up a pair of shoes off the floor, demonstrating American paupers’ need for second hand items in a poverty-stricken time period.
The costume design is very authentic and is evocative of 1920s America.
During a three shot of Handy Hank, Keaton and Sybil the viewer isn’t encouraged to focus their attention upon a particular character.
During each of Keaton’s stunts, the camera remains in a static position and no closeups are used. The viewer’s attention is not manipulated.
Although Keaton’s stunts themselves are highly expressive, each are performed exactly as you view them by Keaton himself. No editing or special effects are used to accentuate them.
Keaton’s behaviour towards the policeman is representative of the negative attitude and distrust America possessed towards authority figures.
The appearance of a flat pack house as a plot device is a realist depiction of a social issue in America. A lack of affordable housing led to an increase in flat pack housing among those who could not afford pre-existing homes.
A realist presentation of stereotypical gender roles are – Keaton’s character performs the physically laborious task of building the house while Sybil’s character cooks and provides for him.
During the piano gag, a static long take long shot is utilised, which is a more realist manner of filmmaking.
As Keaton climbs the pole, his daring athleticism is demonstrated by a static long take.
The house was constructed on a turntable so that it could really spin during the storm sequence.
The train collision was filmed exactly as it appears to occur, establishing a sense of realism.
During the final shot, the streets of LA are displayed, informing us of the fact that Keaton filmed on location.
Long take with deep focus – the viewer is able to direct their attention towards any of the characters
Expressive
The film opens on a reverse iris shot, adding an initial aesthetic layer to the opening of the film. This expressive flair does not capture objective reality and sets the light-hearted tone present throughout the film.
Intertitles are used throughout the film as to provide the viewer with explicit information, which contextualises the the events occurring in ways that silent action cannot.
A description of the scene is provided by an intertitle (“such a sweet sound but such a sour echo). This expressive alliteration is used to create an evocative setting which the viewer is forced to accept.
A cinema showing of silent films is typically accompanied by a piano/organ, which stylistically informs the viewer of the current emotion of the scene.
Another iris shot is used to display the wedding bell, which manipulates the viewer into directing their attention towards it.
Keaton utilises a crossfade transition between the wedding bell shot and the married couple walking down the church steps. This example of manipulative editing demonstrates the connection between the two shots.
During the long shot of Keaton and Sybil walking down the steps, the two characters are centrally framed. Through this, the viewer’s attention is influenced as to where it will be directed.
The rice is pelted at the couple in an unrealistically comedic manner, Keaton additionally utilises fast motion to accentuate the exaggerated comical effect. Shoes are also thrown to the floor, which is another hyperbolic scenario.
We are introduced to Handy Hank through a closeup with a shallow depth-of-field. Due to this, the viewer’s attention is focused towards him as we view his cartoonishly exaggerated facial expression, depicting anger and jealousy.
The shot of the wedding letter uses a vignette, which focuses our attention in a stylistic manner. The viewer is encouraged to read the letter, as there is nothing else to look at on screen.
Each of Keaton’s stunts are centrally framed hyperbolised performance, which create an exciting set piece for the viewer. These daring acts highlight Keaton’s athleticism and daring bravery. For example, Keaton is conveniently standing in the perfect position for him to not be hit by the house as it falls, which is a reoccurring stunt throughout.
Keaton assaults the policeman, which expressively represents America’s disdain for authority.
Keaton’s use of slapstick humour throughout exaggerates each of the situations in a comedic manner.
Another iris shot isolates the delivery driver within the frame which focuses the viewer’s attention upon him.
As the flat pack house is delivered, it is conveniently positioned in the frame so that the viewer is encouraged to read the writing.
An iris shot closeup of the directions informs the viewer that it will be an important plot point.
The shot of the instructions uses vignette, focusing the viewer’s attention. Additionally, the text is left on screen for an appropriate amount of time in order for the viewer to read it.
The fade to black suggests the passage of time, demonstrating Keaton’s method of conveying information through editing.
The cartoonish gag of Keaton sitting on the beam is purely comedic and does not progress the plot. Cutting from a long shot to a closeup, the slapstick joke is conveyed in the most effective manner.
Parallel editing is utilised to contextualise what both Sybil and Keaton are doing separately (cooking and working on the house).
As Keaton falls from the roof, we cut to a long shot which demonstrates the fact that the camerawork is dictated by the course of the joke.
Each of the sets are examples of unrealistic mise-en-scène and are meticulously constructed in order to display a daring acrobatic gag. The behaviour of both the set and characters are abnormal within a realist scenario.
After the house is built, it is comically lopsided. The mise-en-scène is overly exaggerated in order to convey the fact that Keaton hasn’t built it properly. The abstract, surrealist architecture is also reminiscent of German Expressionism. The mise-en-scène continues to be hyperbolic as Keaton pulls down the light within the house.
Sybil’s character breaks the fourth wall by acknowledging the audience’s presence by directly looking at the camera. To further this, a mysterious hand covers the camera as she reaches out of the bath. This extremely creative form of censorship expressively conveys the scandalous gag.
The piano is comically light for one person and comically heavy for another.
A couple of iris shots are used to focus our attention, first towards Sybil and secondly to accentuate the gag involving the piano falling through the floor.
Each joke is told in a very episodic manner, the introduction of a new room typically signifies the beginning of a new joke.
The camera is positioned in the most effective place as to make the gag as successfully comedic as possible. For example, we cut to an exterior shot as Keaton opens the door to the house.
An absurdly comedic amount of people attempt to occupy a small table.
An iris shot focuses our attention upon Keaton holding an umbrella.
The spinning house gag is extremely surreal and this elaborate set allows Keaton to perform a multitude of daring stunts.
The pace of editing quickens as the pandemonium heightens, manipulating the viewer’s emotions during the sequence.
The action briskly pauses in order to tell a joke with an intertitle, briefly jarring the viewer.
The house set is altered after the storm in order to expressively demonstrate the severe damage it has taken over the course of the storm.
Parallel editing is used in order to inform the viewer of the train’s imminent arrival.
In order for the train gag to be successful, it relies on the viewer’s warped perspective. The camera is placed in a particular spot as to manipulate what the viewer can see. We are also denied seeing the approach of the second train for comedic effect.
Joseph Frank “Buster” Keaton (1895-1966) was an American comedy actor and filmmaker. Popularised during the Classical Era of Hollywood, Keaton specialised in directing and acting in his silent films. Keaton is known for his stoicism and deadpan expression (developed as part of his family vaudeville act ‘The Three Keatons’), while performing dangerously impressive slapstick stunts.
Buster Keaton
In 1919, Keaton set up ‘Buster Keaton Productions’ alongside film executive Joseph M. Schenk. Through this, he received complete creative freedom within each of his films. Collaborating with co-director Edward F. Cline, Keaton initially created a multitude of successful ‘two-reelers’. Alongside Charlie Chaplin and Harold Lloyd, Keaton created a numerous amount of silent films during this period, including the likes of One Week (1920), The High Sign (1921) and Cops (1922) which received wide critical acclaim.
Each of the films utilised an innumerable amount of visual gags within its storytelling, including: dangerously daring stunts, pan demonic chases, expressionistic gags and subtle critique of American society. The films were almost always shot on set in Los Angeles near the studio and Keaton often utilised long takes to illustrate a sense of realism within his films.
Expressionism can also be found within Keaton’s films, particularly through his use of surreal anti-realist devices – an example being the comically large newspaper in The High Sign. Keaton’s daring stunts and exaggerated body language could also considered to be a form of expressionism.
The expressionist newspaper gag in The High Sign
In wake of the success of Keaton’s short film success, he then moved onto to creating feature-length productions. The likes of Sherlock Jr. (1924) and The General (1926) are considered to be some of his best work, with Orson Welles remarking upon the latter as being “perhaps the greatest film ever made”.
Despite the decline of Keaton’s career in the 30s after he lost his artistic independence, his legacy continues to live on. His iconic gags are ever-present within contemporary cinema, and his deadpan expression will forever be evocative of the Classical Era of Hollywood.
Cops (Buster Keaton, 1922) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 18 minutes.
Within the film, Keaton plays his usual stoic self as he gets involved in a series of misunderstandings involving a horse. This eventually leads to him getting on the wrong side of the entire LAPD during a parade, resulting in a classic Keaton chase sequence.
The opening shot of the film is particularly interesting, as Keaton’s clever framing allows the audience to believe that he is physically trapped behind bars. In reality, Keaton’s character is metaphorically ‘locked out’ from his girlfriends’s family, who represents the upper class.
Opening scene of the film
Another expressive technique Keaton utilises is the during the seesaw sequence, in which he plays around with framing and symmetry to create yet another humorous gag. The realism within the film can be seen within the context, as it was produced during the rape-and-murder trial of Fatty Arbuckle – a silent star of the 1910s who brought Keaton into the limelight. Within Cops, Keaton’s character never comes out on top – despite his good intentions – which illustrates a sense of hopelessness throughout. The ending of the film is also extremely dark, the final shot being of a gravestone emblazoned with a ‘The End’ title card, with Keaton’s pork pie hat propped up against it.
The seesaw
I enjoyed elements of the more despairing tone Cops offered, but it is probably my least favourite of the four due to its confusing incoherence and strange pacing. However, the seesaw gag was particularly amusing and Keaton’s stunt-work is unbelievable as ever.
The High Sign (Buster Keaton, 1921) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 21 minutes. The film was actually Keaton’s first effort, but due to his disappointment with the final product, it was not released until a year after its completion.
Within the film, Keaton plays a nameless drifter who lands a job in a shooting gallery. We are then introduced to a gang known as the Blinking Buzzards who wish to kill a man named August Nickelnurser. Keaton is then employed by both the gang as an assassin, as well by Nickelnurser as his personal bodyguard. This results in an hyperbolically humorous ‘double-agent’ storyline.
The endearingly comedic Blinking Buzzard hand sign
The film features a more complex storyline than both One Week and The Scarecrow, incorporating much more realism than expressionism throughout. Although the story is much more authentic and grounded in reality, Keaton’s trademark use of fast motion, slapstick humour and elaborate sets are still ever present. For example, an array of revolving wall panels, trapdoors and hidden corridors are utilised by Keaton to grand comedic effect. To demonstrate this, Keaton utilises an unusual wide shot at one point in the film, exhibiting the four rooms of the funhouse simultaneously. Through this, the comedic pandemonium is displayed in a creatively unique way.
The appearance of the Blinking Buzzard gang in this film is also an accurate portrayal of the 1920s time period, during which many ex-soldiers led a life of violence and corruption after the war.
I thoroughly enjoyed The High Sign and preferred it to both One Week and The Scarecrow. I found the double-agent storyline to be Keaton’s most engaging work thus far and found the ending to be extremely fulfilling.
The Scarecrow (Buster Keaton, 1920) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 19 minutes.
Keaton plays a worker on a farm who is in competition with his housemate (Joe Roberts) to win over the farmer’s daughter (Sybil Seely). After a number of humorous shenanigans, Keaton’s character borrows a scarecrow’s clothes, after which he trips into a kneeling position in front of the daughter. She believes he is proposing to him, and they are quickly whisked away on a motorbike on which they swiftly get married.
The comedic marriage at the end of the film
Once again, Keaton incorporates elements of expressive filmmaking into an otherwise realist film. For example, the sunrise exhibited at the start of the film is shot using fast motion in order to hyperbolise reality in a comedic manner. Keaton also utilises a variety of elaborate set designs, such as the intricate Rube Goldberg-like devices featured within the house. Additionally, Keaton and Roberts’ performances are extremely melodramatic throughout and a multitude of dangerous stunts demonstrate their daring athleticism. Realism can be seen throughout the film through the characters’ attire – typical 20s clothes – as well as the fact that the setting is authentically rural.
Keaton’s elaborate Rube Goldberg-esque set
Personally, I enjoyed The Scarecrow a considerable amount. Although the set pieces did not match up to the scope of One Week, I enjoyed the slightly more realistic situations the characters found themselves in. The film was well-paced and managed to be consistently humorous throughout, with an especially satisfying ending.
One Week (Buster Keaton, 1920) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 19 minutes. The two main characters of the film are The Groom (Buster Keaton) and The Bride (Sybil Seely) – a newlywed couple who receive a ‘build-it-yourself’ house as a wedding gift. Handy Hank, a man who was rejected by the bride, decides to sabotage the house by renumbering the packages, meaning that the house isn’t built properly and results in being comically lopsided. The situation continues to grow worse over the course of the film, providing for a variety increasingly humorous situations throughout.
The lopsided house
The film could be argued to take elements of both realism and expressionism throughout. Although the situation the two main characters find themselves in is somewhat grounded in reality, each event that takes place is extremely hyperbolic to a humorous effect.
Keaton utilises a number of interesting techniques throughout the film in order to create humour. For example, at one point in the film, the house begins to spin rapidly during a storm. This was not a model – the house was actually constructed atop a turntable and was filmed spinning in real time. This was done in order for the gag to appear more authentic. In addition to this, a real train was used during the collision sequence near the end of the film. Keaton’s use of fast motion throughout also heightens the exaggerated comedy.
The film also includes a brief fourth wall break, which appears to be very much ahead of its time. During one scene, The Bride is taking a bath and accidentally drops a bar of soap. As she reaches out of the bath to pick it up, a mysterious hand is placed over the camera lens. This form of censorship was not only seen as relatively scandalous during the time of release, but was also an extremely creative joke for the silent era of Hollywood.
I thoroughly enjoyed One Week from start to finish. The 19 minute duration allowed the film to not overstay its welcome and the hyperbolic silent comedy still holds up well to this day. My favourite set piece was the spinning house, as I enjoyed watching the characters devolve into pandemonium.
Originating in the late 1800s, film began when Lumiere brothers discovered that if you displayed images in a rapid sequence (24 per second), it would create the illusion of a moving image. The first films were originally shot at an unmoving wide angle without any sound. At the time, one reel of film lasted around 8-12 minutes. Because of this, most films used two reels of film and were appropriately dubbed ‘two-reelers’. By the 1910s, filmmakers incorporated varying angles and used a multitude of sets within in a single film – portraying spatial and temporal movement.
As opposed to Germany and Russia, America did not view film as a new art form first and foremost. Instead, many American entrepreneurs saw film as a grand business opportunity. Because of this, vertical integration quickly took effect and filmmaking was quickly transformed into an assembly line-esque industry. Romance and comedy films were the genres of primary focus, due to these films attracting the highest cinema viewership, as they were easily digestible and relatable to audiences at the time.
In addition to this, slapstick was a very popular genre during the silent era of film, which displayed the actors’ daring athleticism and seemingly impossible feats. Through this, the first ‘stars’ of Hollywood were born – including Charlie Chaplin, Harold Lloyd, Buster Keaton, as well as many others. The slapstick comedy duo Laurel & Hardy also had highly successful careers both during and after the silent era of Hollywood.
Laurel & Hardy
As film continued to grow exponentially in popularity, the rise of production facilities throughout America increased. This gave birth to the first film studios, five of which dominated the cinema. Throughout this Golden Age of Hollywood, the main studios included: Paramount, RKO, MGM, Warner Brothers and 20th Century Fox, who had complete control over both production business and distribution firms. It is no understatement to remark upon the fact that these studios were the supreme rulers of the American film industry from the 1920s-50s.
By 1929, almost all films had synchronised sound and film was the most popular art form in the Western world. Audiences visited the cinema primarily to see their favourite stars on the big screen. Because of this, the stars of Hollywood were coerced into signing exclusivity contracts, meaning that they could only work under specific studios. The film studios themselves only continued to grow substantially during the Great Depression, during which actors and directors were merely viewed as assets to possess by the studios. Studios engaged in a practice known as ‘block booking’ which allowed the studio to sell to multiple films to cinemas at once. Each cinema was owned by a particular studio and they had complete creative control over each film that was released under it. Ticket prices were fixed and each studio attempted to monopolise the industry by acquiring film ‘packages’. This meant that a handful of films were immediately owned by the particular studio.
Hollywood and the studio system
This ultimately led to an over-saturation of uninspired and ‘by the numbers’ films. Filmmakers were restricted to experiment outside of what was absolutely certain to sell tickets. Hollywood’s contemporary association with shallowness, glamour and money originated from this early age of cinema.
The third component we are studying is Component 2c: Silent Cinema. This section of the course entails four films of study, each directed by Buster Keaton – a renowned silent filmmaker. These include One Week (1920), The Scarecrow (1920), The High Sign (1921) and Cops (1922). Throughout this component, the areas of study are the core study areas (including the key elements, contexts, aesthetics and representation) as well as one specialist study area – Realist vs Expressive filmmaking. This specialist area of study focuses on how the emergence of film as a new art form led to filmmakers around the world taking a variety of starkly juxtaposing approaches to filmmaking.
Otis Morley’s A-Level Film Studies Blog 
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