expressive

Filibustering Keaton: Cops

Throughout Cops (1922), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.

Realist

The film is shot on location, depicting the bustling streets of Los Angeles near the film studio.
The costume design seen throughout is an accurate representation of the time period, being evocative of the 1920s.
The film was produced during the proceedings of Fatty Arbuckle’s rape-and-murder trial. Being a silent star of the 1910s who brought Keaton into the limelight, it was clear that Keaton certainly had this on his mind as the film developed. Throughout the film, his character never comes out on top (despite his good intentions), police are presented in an extremely negative light, he does not ‘get the girl’ and his death is implied through the end card. This illustrates a sense of hopelessness over the duration of the film.
The opening long take of Keaton behind bars is a static wide shot, allowing the viewer to freely direct their attention between Keaton and Virginia Fox. Keaton is displayed as being ‘locked out’ from the upper class.
Keaton has a brief encounter with a man on the side of the road pretending to be kicked out by his wife, which could be considered a realist scenario.
Keaton uses a long take to display the two characters loading the furniture onto the carriage, utilising deep focus so that the viewer is able to direct their attention between both characters.
Keaton’s insolent behaviour towards the policeman depicted throughout the film is representative of America’s disrespectful attitude towards authority.
‘Gland larceny’ is briefly referenced when Keaton is seen taking his horse to a goat gland specialist. During the year of release, at least three men in America fell victim to testicle theft. Here, Keaton is referencing a real event that audiences would’ve been aware of in a light-hearted manner.
A multitude of long take wide shots display an overwhelming number of policeman, allowing the viewer to be in awe of the intimidating force.
Keaton smokes a cigarette as he rides into the police procession, demonstrating the popularity of tobacco in America.
The seesaw gag is filmed with a long take long shot with deep focus, allowing us to focus on both the seesaw in the foreground and the policemen in the background.
As previously mentioned, the ending of Cops is much darker in tone and, arguably more realist too. Keaton is rejected by Fox and death is implied through the end card.

*The titular ‘cops’ are filmed with a static long take*

The alliterative opening intertitle (“love laughs at locksmiths”) is accompanied by an expressive illustration of Cupid shooting a lock. Houdini’s quote naturally transitions into the opening scene of the film, establishing the premise.
The opening shot of the film is particularly interesting, as Keaton’s clever framing allows the audience to believe that he is physically trapped behind bars, foreshadowing the later events. In reality, Keaton’s character is metaphorically ‘locked out’ from his girlfriends’s family, who represents the upper class.
A brief but hyperbolic slapstick exchange involving a wallet is unrealistic, but creates humour.
A closeup of the man sitting on the curb displays his highly exaggerated, superficial expression. This example of the Kuleshov Effect informs us of his devious intentions.
A fade to black signifies the passage of time, after which the furniture is loaded onto the carriage.
As the vase is unable to fit in the suitcase, Keaton’s clumsiness leads a piece breaking off in order for it to fit. This expertly sets up the next gag of the other vase falling off the carriage, creating a comical punchline.
Keaton uses a boxing glove to serve as a makeshift indicator, as to not be bitten by a dog. This exaggerated mise-en-scène creates absurdist comedy. Keaton proceeds to punch a policeman with the same glove, demonstrating slapstick humour.
An iris closeup of the Goat Gland Specialist sign focuses our attention towards the absurdly comical service.
An intertitle contextualises the ensuing events of the police parade for the viewer.
Parallel editing is incorporated between Keaton on his horse and the police parade, manipulating the viewer into believing that the events are occurring simultaneously .
Keaton continues to use expressive mise-en-scène through the use of the bomb prop which is a highly stereotypical depiction of an explosive. Through a closeup of the bomb, the viewer’s emotions are manipulated as they anticipate the bomb’s explosion.
As the chase between Keaton and the policeman ensues, fast motion is employed by Keaton in order to hyperbolise the situation for comedic effect. His use of elaborate choreography and blocking accentuates the ambitious set piece. The sheer amount of homogenous policemen in once place heightens the effect of the gag.
The pace of editing quickens as the events of the chase become increasingly hectic.
The water that spurts from the fire hydrant is comically vigorous and highly exaggerated.
Keaton is able to contort his body into a small chest effortlessly which heightens the absurdity of the situation.
The elaborate seesaw gag plays with balance, symmetry and framing in order to provide a daring visual spectacle. Keaton proceeds to fly through the air, further reinforcing the absurdity of the situation.
Keaton’s small figure starkly juxtaposes the overwhelming congregation of policemen as he is chased through the streets. Keaton’s athleticism is reinforced as he slides under one of the policemen’s legs.
The final shot of the film depicts a gravestone, unrealistically emblazoned with ‘THE END’. Keaton’s pork pie hat is propped up against it, signifying his apparent death at the end of the film.

*Seesaw gag plays with symmetry and balance, but is also filmed with a static wide shot and deep focus*

Filibustering Keaton: The High Sign

Throughout The High Sign (1921), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.

Realist

The film is shot on location, depicting the populous streets of LA.
The costume design is also authentic, being evocative of the 1920s.
Keaton’s character is kicked off the train – his train-hopping demonstrates a realist issue in society. Paupers snuck onto trains as a mode of transportation in order to seek work in the city.
The merry-go-round seen within the film was a popular attraction during the time period.
The newspaper featured within the film represents the fact that it was the most common form of media during the time period. Furthermore, the advert in the paper is symbolic of nationwide employment across the country.
Keaton’s disrespectful behaviour towards the policeman is demonstrative of America’s negative attitude towards authority. The gag is also shot with a long take using deep focus, so that the viewer is able to freely focus upon the scene as they see fit.
The shooting gallery, a key location within the film, informs us that they were relatively common attractions found throughout the Jazz Age of America.
The primary antagonistic force of the film are the Blinking Buzzards. This comical gang is a representation of the presence of organised crime throughout 1920s America. The planned assassination of August Nickelnurser epitomises the many assassinations carried out which were primarily driven by political gain. This lawless society was established due to many ex-soldiers living a life of violence and corruption after the events of WW1, hyperbolised by the character of Tiny Tim within the film.
Within the films, characters can be seen drinking alcohol from flasks which demonstrates the effects of the Prohibition Era (1920).
A long take wide shot of August and Sybil introducing themselves to Keaton is used, allowing the viewer to freely observe each character.
The butler in August’s house is representative of the divide between social class that existed during the time period.
The four rooms of the funhouse are filmed with a static wide shot. The deep focus allows the viewer to focus upon each of the four rooms separately.

Expressive

The opening intertitle details the origins of Keaton’s character with the language “Nowhere, Anywhere, Somewhere”, which evokes a sense of ambiguity.
Keaton falls of the freight train in unrealistic and exaggerated manner.
The comically large newspaper gag is very surrealist and heightens the comedic value of the scene. The ensuing closeup of the paper also introduces us to Tiny Tim.
The banana gag is cartoonish and unrealistic – Keaton use of absurd expression manipulates the viewer’s emotions.
Keaton’s shooting of the bottles is hyperbolically inaccurate, shattering the illusion of reality. Keaton further accentuates the the gag by shooting a seagull out of the sky, which is achieved through the employment of special effects.
Fast motion is utilised as the man runs away to create a sense of cartoonish light-heartedness.
A closeup of the dentist sign allows the viewer to read the ‘Dr Pullem’ sign, an example of a comical pun.
Tiny Tim turns out to be very large, dwarfing Keaton in the frame. This subversion of the viewer’s expectations creates a comical realisation. Tim also wears dark makeup, this example of mise-en-scène foreshadows his antagonistic behaviour revealed later in the film.
An intertitle introduces us to the Blinking Buzzards through the use of absurdly hyperbolic alliteration. (Brutal bungalow of Blinking Buzzards, a bold bad bunch etc.)
Keaton employs parallel editing between his character in the shooting gallery and the Buzzards in their lair, contextualising the simultaneously occurring events to the viewer’s.
The ransom letter delivered to August is displayed with a closeup using vignette. This, alongside appropriate reading time, manipulates the viewer into reading the letter.
The iconic Blinking Buzzard hand sign featured throughout the film endearingly mocks stereotypical gang signs through Keaton’s use of choreography.
Parallel editing is employed between Keaton in the shooting gallery, the dog ringing the bell and Tiny Tim’s reaction as to fully contextualise the gag for the viewer.
Keaton briefly breaks the fourth wall by directly looking at the camera as he realises he has become a double agent, this is a knowing acknowledgement of the audience.
Keaton hangs his hat onto the wall by manifesting a peg by painting one onto the wall. Due to the gag being so surrealist and physically impossible to achieve in reality, comedy is instilled within the viewer. This can also be seen within a similar scene, in which Keaton smokes a pipe that appears to be part of a painted backdrop at the shooting gallery.
A fade to black signifies the passage of time between events.
The prior banana gag makes a reappearance as the policeman attempts to use his gun on Tiny Tim, creating fulfilling humour. As the peel is dropped on the floor, no one slips over it which subverts the viewer’s expectations of a classic cliché.
August’s house is full of elaborate contraptions and secret getaways. Including the likes of revolving wall panels, trapdoors and hidden corridors, this expressive mise-en-scène lends itself to Keaton’s surrealist and abstract comedy.
A classic Keaton chase sequence ensues within the house, demonstrating his daring athleticism and establishing comical slapstick humour.
A shot using vignette plays with the viewer’s perspective, the viewer is able to view both rooms simultaneously in order for the joke to be told most effectively.
One of the gang members’ head becomes stuck in the door, reinforcing the absurdist nature of the film.
The final scene of the film is subversive as the viewer does not know which side Keaton is on until the very last second.

Filibustering Keaton: The Scarecrow

Throughout The Scarecrow (1920), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.

Realist

The costume design used throughout is an accurate representation of 1920s America.
A multitude of commonly-found domestic appliances exist within the house, including: a record player, oven and a mirror.
One of the intertitles remarks upon women getting the vote in 1919, a recently occurring significant historical event at the time of release.
Coin operated gas meters were frequently found within apartment buildings, depicting a realist display of working class living standards.
As Keaton sets the table, a static long shot with deep focus captures the scene, providing an unbiased, objective view of the room. The viewer is able to freely view the frame.
The elaborate dual-function contraptions found within the house reference the illustrations of Rube Goldberg, which were popularised during the timeframe of release.
Both of the main characters are farmers, representing the poverty-stricken society of the time period. The laborious manual labour the characters must endure is juxtaposed by the Rube Goldberg machinery.
Both characters also wish to impress the same girl, demonstrating the patriarchal society of the time period, in addition to the duty held by many to settle down and start a family.
The film is shot on location, depicting a realist rural setting.
The chase sequence is filmed with a static long shot with deep focus, allowing the viewer to ‘cut with their eyes’.
The wild dog that appears within the film were commonly found within the 1920s rural setting depicted throughout the film. In addition, Keaton’s character fears the possibility of the dog being rabid – rabies being a commonly occurring disease within dogs during this time.
The titular scarecrow gag involves a commonly found decoy throughout American farmsteads with alcohol in its pocket. This is perhaps symbolic of the initiation of the Prohibition Era, which came into effect during the year of release (1920).
During the kicking gag, the camera remains static. This allows the viewer to freely focus upon each of the three actors as they see fit.

*An unbiased, objective view of the room achieved by using deep focus*

Expressive

The opening intertitle establishes the rural setting by illustratively describing the scene (“slowly and majestically the sun steals gradually over the hill-tops”) evoking a sense of romanticised pastoral imagery of the 1920s.
The opening wide shot of the sunrise is shot with fast motion, Keaton’s use of hyperbolic mise-en-scène symbolically illustrates the dawn of a new day.
A number of iris shots are utilised throughout the film, each directing the viewer’s attention towards a particular character or object.
Keaton’s loose tooth is conveyed to the viewer by an exaggerated head bandage, additionally setting up the slapstick door gag. Keaton alternates between wide shots and reactionary closeups as to direct the viewer’s attention towards the punchline of a joke.
The Rube Goldberg-inspired contraptions (including the fence prop) found within the house are extremely hyperbolic and unrealistic. These contraptions are used to create a sequence of surrealist gags, which are reminiscent of vaudeville theatre.
During the meal between Keaton and Roberts, the pair’s movements are highly choreographed in order to heighten the effect of the abstract gag.
The family of ducks bathing in the waste water is a highly unrealistic situation staged by Keaton in order to produce a comedic effect. This is also used to set up a later gag involving Keaton falling in the water in classic slapstick fashion.
An introductory closeup of Sybil’s character immediately focuses the viewer’s attention towards her.
The pace of editing quickens and fast motion is employed as the chase sequence ensues, manipulating the viewer’s emotions.
Roberts miraculously manages to survive the impact of being run over, this unrealistic scenario successfully creates comedy. He is later seen on comically hyperbolic crutches and immediately knocked over again, further accentuating the gag.
The scarecrow gag relies upon the viewer’s manipulated perspective in order to land. We are unable to see Keaton from the front, we therefore do not know he is the scarecrow. As the joke is repeated a second time, the viewer is in on the joke, creating a sense of comedic fulfilment.
Keaton demonstrates his daring athleticism by impressively walking through the river on his hands, juxtaposing Roberts’ comical fall.
The ‘accidental proposal’ is unrealistically successful, heightening the sheer absurdity of the scenario.
The fake horse gag further increases the sense of idiosyncrasy Keaton possesses.
The vicar just so happens to be conveniently standing on the side of the road, this unrealistic scenario further accentuates the expressive nonsensicality of the film.
The final iris shot centralises the viewer’s attention onto Keaton placing the makeshift wedding ring on Sybil’s finger.

*The marriage between the two characters is comical due to the extremely unrealistic situation in which they find themselves*

Filibustering Keaton: One Week

Throughout One Week (1920), Buster Keaton employs elements of both realist and expressive styles of filmmaking, in order to create comedy in the most effective means possible.

Realist

The film is shot on location, meaning it is an accurate representation of America in the 1920s.
Throughout the long shot of bride and groom walking down the steps, the camera remains in a static position. The viewer is not manipulated to direct their attention towards anything in particular.
The rice throwing exhibited at the wedding captures a genuine cultural tradition present within 1920s America.
Keaton’s character picks up a pair of shoes off the floor, demonstrating American paupers’ need for second hand items in a poverty-stricken time period.
The costume design is very authentic and is evocative of 1920s America.
During a three shot of Handy Hank, Keaton and Sybil the viewer isn’t encouraged to focus their attention upon a particular character.
During each of Keaton’s stunts, the camera remains in a static position and no closeups are used. The viewer’s attention is not manipulated.
Although Keaton’s stunts themselves are highly expressive, each are performed exactly as you view them by Keaton himself. No editing or special effects are used to accentuate them.
Keaton’s behaviour towards the policeman is representative of the negative attitude and distrust America possessed towards authority figures.
The appearance of a flat pack house as a plot device is a realist depiction of a social issue in America. A lack of affordable housing led to an increase in flat pack housing among those who could not afford pre-existing homes.
A realist presentation of stereotypical gender roles are – Keaton’s character performs the physically laborious task of building the house while Sybil’s character cooks and provides for him.
During the piano gag, a static long take long shot is utilised, which is a more realist manner of filmmaking.
As Keaton climbs the pole, his daring athleticism is demonstrated by a static long take.
The house was constructed on a turntable so that it could really spin during the storm sequence.
The train collision was filmed exactly as it appears to occur, establishing a sense of realism.
During the final shot, the streets of LA are displayed, informing us of the fact that Keaton filmed on location.

*Long take with deep focus – the viewer is able to direct their attention towards any of the characters*

Expressive

The film opens on a reverse iris shot, adding an initial aesthetic layer to the opening of the film. This expressive flair does not capture objective reality and sets the light-hearted tone present throughout the film.
Intertitles are used throughout the film as to provide the viewer with explicit information, which contextualises the the events occurring in ways that silent action cannot.
A description of the scene is provided by an intertitle (“such a sweet sound but such a sour echo). This expressive alliteration is used to create an evocative setting which the viewer is forced to accept.
A cinema showing of silent films is typically accompanied by a piano/organ, which stylistically informs the viewer of the current emotion of the scene.
Another iris shot is used to display the wedding bell, which manipulates the viewer into directing their attention towards it.
Keaton utilises a crossfade transition between the wedding bell shot and the married couple walking down the church steps. This example of manipulative editing demonstrates the connection between the two shots.
During the long shot of Keaton and Sybil walking down the steps, the two characters are centrally framed. Through this, the viewer’s attention is influenced as to where it will be directed.
The rice is pelted at the couple in an unrealistically comedic manner, Keaton additionally utilises fast motion to accentuate the exaggerated comical effect. Shoes are also thrown to the floor, which is another hyperbolic scenario.
We are introduced to Handy Hank through a closeup with a shallow depth-of-field. Due to this, the viewer’s attention is focused towards him as we view his cartoonishly exaggerated facial expression, depicting anger and jealousy.
The shot of the wedding letter uses a vignette, which focuses our attention in a stylistic manner. The viewer is encouraged to read the letter, as there is nothing else to look at on screen.
Each of Keaton’s stunts are centrally framed hyperbolised performance, which create an exciting set piece for the viewer. These daring acts highlight Keaton’s athleticism and daring bravery. For example, Keaton is conveniently standing in the perfect position for him to not be hit by the house as it falls, which is a reoccurring stunt throughout.
Keaton assaults the policeman, which expressively represents America’s disdain for authority.
Keaton’s use of slapstick humour throughout exaggerates each of the situations in a comedic manner.
Another iris shot isolates the delivery driver within the frame which focuses the viewer’s attention upon him.
As the flat pack house is delivered, it is conveniently positioned in the frame so that the viewer is encouraged to read the writing.
An iris shot closeup of the directions informs the viewer that it will be an important plot point.
The shot of the instructions uses vignette, focusing the viewer’s attention. Additionally, the text is left on screen for an appropriate amount of time in order for the viewer to read it.
The fade to black suggests the passage of time, demonstrating Keaton’s method of conveying information through editing.
The cartoonish gag of Keaton sitting on the beam is purely comedic and does not progress the plot. Cutting from a long shot to a closeup, the slapstick joke is conveyed in the most effective manner.
Parallel editing is utilised to contextualise what both Sybil and Keaton are doing separately (cooking and working on the house).
As Keaton falls from the roof, we cut to a long shot which demonstrates the fact that the camerawork is dictated by the course of the joke.
Each of the sets are examples of unrealistic mise-en-scène and are meticulously constructed in order to display a daring acrobatic gag. The behaviour of both the set and characters are abnormal within a realist scenario.
After the house is built, it is comically lopsided. The mise-en-scène is overly exaggerated in order to convey the fact that Keaton hasn’t built it properly. The abstract, surrealist architecture is also reminiscent of German Expressionism. The mise-en-scène continues to be hyperbolic as Keaton pulls down the light within the house.
Sybil’s character breaks the fourth wall by acknowledging the audience’s presence by directly looking at the camera. To further this, a mysterious hand covers the camera as she reaches out of the bath. This extremely creative form of censorship expressively conveys the scandalous gag.
The piano is comically light for one person and comically heavy for another.
A couple of iris shots are used to focus our attention, first towards Sybil and secondly to accentuate the gag involving the piano falling through the floor.
Each joke is told in a very episodic manner, the introduction of a new room typically signifies the beginning of a new joke.
The camera is positioned in the most effective place as to make the gag as successfully comedic as possible. For example, we cut to an exterior shot as Keaton opens the door to the house.
An absurdly comedic amount of people attempt to occupy a small table.
An iris shot focuses our attention upon Keaton holding an umbrella.
The spinning house gag is extremely surreal and this elaborate set allows Keaton to perform a multitude of daring stunts.
The pace of editing quickens as the pandemonium heightens, manipulating the viewer’s emotions during the sequence.
The action briskly pauses in order to tell a joke with an intertitle, briefly jarring the viewer.
The house set is altered after the storm in order to expressively demonstrate the severe damage it has taken over the course of the storm.
Parallel editing is used in order to inform the viewer of the train’s imminent arrival.
In order for the train gag to be successful, it relies on the viewer’s warped perspective. The camera is placed in a particular spot as to manipulate what the viewer can see. We are also denied seeing the approach of the second train for comedic effect.

*The house is reminiscent of German Expressionism*

André Bazin: The Realist vs. The Expressive

André Bazin (1918-1958) was a French film critic and theorist, known for writing in the film magazine ‘Cahiers du cinéma’ (Notebooks on Cinema) from 1951 until his death in 1958. Afterwards, a four volume anthology entitled ‘Qu’est-ce que le cinéma?’ (What is Cinema?) was published posthumously, a work that exhibited his theories of realist and expressive cinema. At its core, his main argument stated that realism is the most important function of cinema. He argued that filmmakers should not manipulate the viewer’s thoughts, feelings or attention but instead leave it up to the individual spectator’s interpretation. Opposing the film theory of the 1920s, Bazin called for objective reality, deep focus and a lack of montage to be conducted throughout filmmaking.

Bazin viewed cinema as an “idealistic phenomenon” first and foremost, sidelining its commercial and technical value. Categorising the early pioneers of film – such as the Lumiere brothers – as merely “industrialists”, he strongly believed that the idea preceded the invention and is thus superior to the technical means to achieve it. Bazin believed that a camera’s ability to capture a duplication of reality placed cinema above both paintings and photos as art forms.

Through this, Bazin believed that cinema’s true purpose was to depict an ‘objective reality’. Utilising the techniques mentioned above, alongside a ‘true continuity’ through the use of mise-en-scène, cinema’s true potential was achieved in Bazin’s eyes. However, Bazin also remarked upon the fact that, as with any art form, the filmmaker should carefully select what they display to the viewer. He did not simply believe that films should display a never-ending, uninterrupted depiction of reality,

“Every form of aesthetic must necessarily choose between what is worth preserving and what should be discarded, and what should not even be considered”
André Bazin, What is Cinema?

Another important idea found within Bazin’s writing is his theory of the ‘invisible director’. Despite believing cinema to be a fully realist art form, Bazin additionally heralded the concept of the auteur – championing the idea that each director should possess a recognisable visual flair within their films. This seemingly contradictory belief can be rebuked by Bazin’s statement on direction found below. Through this, the viewer is able to engage with a particular auteur’s vision in their own individual way, rather than having a specific meaning forced upon them.

“It is the director that brings the film to life and uses the film to express their thoughts and feelings about the subject matter as well as a worldview as an auteur. An auteur can use lighting, camerawork, staging and editing to add to their vision.”
André Bazin

Buster Keaton: The Silent Clown

Joseph Frank “Buster” Keaton (1895-1966) was an American comedy actor and filmmaker. Popularised during the Classical Era of Hollywood, Keaton specialised in directing and acting in his silent films. Keaton is known for his stoicism and deadpan expression (developed as part of his family vaudeville act ‘The Three Keatons’), while performing dangerously impressive slapstick stunts.

In 1919, Keaton set up ‘Buster Keaton Productions’ alongside film executive Joseph M. Schenk. Through this, he received complete creative freedom within each of his films. Collaborating with co-director Edward F. Cline, Keaton initially created a multitude of successful ‘two-reelers’. Alongside Charlie Chaplin and Harold Lloyd, Keaton created a numerous amount of silent films during this period, including the likes of One Week (1920), The High Sign (1921) and Cops (1922) which received wide critical acclaim.

Each of the films utilised an innumerable amount of visual gags within its storytelling, including: dangerously daring stunts, pan demonic chases, expressionistic gags and subtle critique of American society. The films were almost always shot on set in Los Angeles near the studio and Keaton often utilised long takes to illustrate a sense of realism within his films.

Expressionism can also be found within Keaton’s films, particularly through his use of surreal anti-realist devices – an example being the comically large newspaper in The High Sign. Keaton’s daring stunts and exaggerated body language could also considered to be a form of expressionism.

*The expressionist newspaper gag in The High Sign*

In wake of the success of Keaton’s short film success, he then moved onto to creating feature-length productions. The likes of Sherlock Jr. (1924) and The General (1926) are considered to be some of his best work, with Orson Welles remarking upon the latter as being “perhaps the greatest film ever made”.

Despite the decline of Keaton’s career in the 30s after he lost his artistic independence, his legacy continues to live on. His iconic gags are ever-present within contemporary cinema, and his deadpan expression will forever be evocative of the Classical Era of Hollywood.

Cops (Buster Keaton, 1922)

Cops (Buster Keaton, 1922) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 18 minutes.

Within the film, Keaton plays his usual stoic self as he gets involved in a series of misunderstandings involving a horse. This eventually leads to him getting on the wrong side of the entire LAPD during a parade, resulting in a classic Keaton chase sequence.

The opening shot of the film is particularly interesting, as Keaton’s clever framing allows the audience to believe that he is physically trapped behind bars. In reality, Keaton’s character is metaphorically ‘locked out’ from his girlfriends’s family, who represents the upper class.

Another expressive technique Keaton utilises is the during the seesaw sequence, in which he plays around with framing and symmetry to create yet another humorous gag. The realism within the film can be seen within the context, as it was produced during the rape-and-murder trial of Fatty Arbuckle – a silent star of the 1910s who brought Keaton into the limelight. Within Cops, Keaton’s character never comes out on top – despite his good intentions – which illustrates a sense of hopelessness throughout. The ending of the film is also extremely dark, the final shot being of a gravestone emblazoned with a ‘The End’ title card, with Keaton’s pork pie hat propped up against it.

I enjoyed elements of the more despairing tone Cops offered, but it is probably my least favourite of the four due to its confusing incoherence and strange pacing. However, the seesaw gag was particularly amusing and Keaton’s stunt-work is unbelievable as ever.

Overall, I would rate Cops ★★★.

The High Sign (Buster Keaton, 1921)

The High Sign (Buster Keaton, 1921) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 21 minutes. The film was actually Keaton’s first effort, but due to his disappointment with the final product, it was not released until a year after its completion.

Within the film, Keaton plays a nameless drifter who lands a job in a shooting gallery. We are then introduced to a gang known as the Blinking Buzzards who wish to kill a man named August Nickelnurser. Keaton is then employed by both the gang as an assassin, as well by Nickelnurser as his personal bodyguard. This results in an hyperbolically humorous ‘double-agent’ storyline.

*The endearingly comedic Blinking Buzzard hand sign*

The film features a more complex storyline than both One Week and The Scarecrow, incorporating much more realism than expressionism throughout. Although the story is much more authentic and grounded in reality, Keaton’s trademark use of fast motion, slapstick humour and elaborate sets are still ever present. For example, an array of revolving wall panels, trapdoors and hidden corridors are utilised by Keaton to grand comedic effect. To demonstrate this, Keaton utilises an unusual wide shot at one point in the film, exhibiting the four rooms of the funhouse simultaneously. Through this, the comedic pandemonium is displayed in a creatively unique way.

The appearance of the Blinking Buzzard gang in this film is also an accurate portrayal of the 1920s time period, during which many ex-soldiers led a life of violence and corruption after the war.

I thoroughly enjoyed The High Sign and preferred it to both One Week and The Scarecrow. I found the double-agent storyline to be Keaton’s most engaging work thus far and found the ending to be extremely fulfilling.

Overall, I would rate The High Sign ★★★★.

The Scarecrow (Buster Keaton, 1920)

The Scarecrow (Buster Keaton, 1920) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 19 minutes.

Keaton plays a worker on a farm who is in competition with his housemate (Joe Roberts) to win over the farmer’s daughter (Sybil Seely). After a number of humorous shenanigans, Keaton’s character borrows a scarecrow’s clothes, after which he trips into a kneeling position in front of the daughter. She believes he is proposing to him, and they are quickly whisked away on a motorbike on which they swiftly get married.

*The comedic marriage at the end of the film*

Once again, Keaton incorporates elements of expressive filmmaking into an otherwise realist film. For example, the sunrise exhibited at the start of the film is shot using fast motion in order to hyperbolise reality in a comedic manner. Keaton also utilises a variety of elaborate set designs, such as the intricate Rube Goldberg-like devices featured within the house. Additionally, Keaton and Roberts’ performances are extremely melodramatic throughout and a multitude of dangerous stunts demonstrate their daring athleticism. Realism can be seen throughout the film through the characters’ attire – typical 20s clothes – as well as the fact that the setting is authentically rural.

*Keaton’s elaborate Rube Goldberg-esque set*

Personally, I enjoyed The Scarecrow a considerable amount. Although the set pieces did not match up to the scope of One Week, I enjoyed the slightly more realistic situations the characters found themselves in. The film was well-paced and managed to be consistently humorous throughout, with an especially satisfying ending.

Overall, I would rate The Scarecrow ★★★.

One Week (Buster Keaton, 1920)

One Week (Buster Keaton, 1920) is an American slapstick silent film starring and directed by Buster Keaton. Being a ‘two-reeler’, the film was shot using two reels of film and thus has a relatively short duration of 19 minutes. The two main characters of the film are The Groom (Buster Keaton) and The Bride (Sybil Seely) – a newlywed couple who receive a ‘build-it-yourself’ house as a wedding gift. Handy Hank, a man who was rejected by the bride, decides to sabotage the house by renumbering the packages, meaning that the house isn’t built properly and results in being comically lopsided. The situation continues to grow worse over the course of the film, providing for a variety increasingly humorous situations throughout.

The film could be argued to take elements of both realism and expressionism throughout. Although the situation the two main characters find themselves in is somewhat grounded in reality, each event that takes place is extremely hyperbolic to a humorous effect.

Keaton utilises a number of interesting techniques throughout the film in order to create humour. For example, at one point in the film, the house begins to spin rapidly during a storm. This was not a model – the house was actually constructed atop a turntable and was filmed spinning in real time. This was done in order for the gag to appear more authentic. In addition to this, a real train was used during the collision sequence near the end of the film. Keaton’s use of fast motion throughout also heightens the exaggerated comedy.

The film also includes a brief fourth wall break, which appears to be very much ahead of its time. During one scene, The Bride is taking a bath and accidentally drops a bar of soap. As she reaches out of the bath to pick it up, a mysterious hand is placed over the camera lens. This form of censorship was not only seen as relatively scandalous during the time of release, but was also an extremely creative joke for the silent era of Hollywood.

I thoroughly enjoyed One Week from start to finish. The 19 minute duration allowed the film to not overstay its welcome and the hyperbolic silent comedy still holds up well to this day. My favourite set piece was the spinning house, as I enjoyed watching the characters devolve into pandemonium.

Overall, I would rate One Week ★★★★.

Creating Meaning: German Expressionism and Soviet Montage

During the early days of film, different nations of the world utilised the medium of filmmaking in a variety of starkly juxtaposing ways in order to create meaning. Two key examples of this can be seen in German Expressionism and Soviet Montage.

German Expressionism

The image below is taken from The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (Robert Wiene, 1920), a quintessential example of German Expressionism. In this single frame alone, Wiene demonstrates his creative use of sharp angular sets, oblique architecture and expressive costume design. Shadows and streaks of light are also painted onto the set directly.

Another quintessential example of German Expressionism is Nosferatu (F.W. Murnau, 1922). Incorporating animated shadows, spectral superimposition and visual shock, it arguably pioneered the contemporary horror genre which is ever-present in modern cinema.

Throughout Metropolis (Fritz Lang, 1927), effects expert Eugen Schüfftan pioneered the scope of what visual effects could achieve. He utilised miniatures of the dystopian city, a camera on a swing, as well as the Schüfftan process. Through this, mirrors are used to illustrate the illusion that actors are living in the miniature sets.

Soviet Montage

The images below is taken from Battleship Potemkin (Sergei Eisenstein, 1925) – specifically from the fourth sequence of the film – the iconic ‘Odessa Steps’ sequence. This depicts a fictional massacre of citizens on a giant stairway in Odessa, Ukraine. Eisenstein employs his apt knowledge of montage theory described above, through which an extremely harrowing scene is created. Juxtaposing a series of fast jump cuts and closeups with a series of wide shots and tracking shots, a strong emotional response in the viewer is evoked.

*Battleship Potemkin – The Odessa Steps sequence*

Throughout Man With a Movie Camera (Dsiga Vertov, 1929), a wide range of cinematic techniques are employed – most of which were invented by Vertov himself. Through a highly creative use of multiple exposure, fast motion, self-reflexive visuals and many more techniques which are listed above, an unashamedly avant-garde experience is created. The image below is an exemplary insight as to what the film offers in store.

Component 2c: Silent Cinema

The third component we are studying is Component 2c: Silent Cinema. This section of the course entails four films of study, each directed by Buster Keaton – a renowned silent filmmaker. These include One Week (1920), The Scarecrow (1920), The High Sign (1921) and Cops (1922). Throughout this component, the areas of study are the core study areas (including the key elements, contexts, aesthetics and representation) as well as one specialist study area – Realist vs Expressive filmmaking. This specialist area of study focuses on how the emergence of film as a new art form led to filmmakers around the world taking a variety of starkly juxtaposing approaches to filmmaking.