Component 1a – Otis Morley’s A-Level Film Studies Blog

Component 1a: Hollywood 1930-1990 (Comparative Study) — Contexts

Compare how far your chosen films reflect their different production contexts.
Sample Assessment Materials

Plan:

Introduction

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) and Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) are two films that are shining exemplars of two starkly contrasting production contexts within Hollywood. Casablanca was a film produced by Warner Brothers under the Hollywood Studio System during the Golden Age – one which epitomises the rigid and traditional Classical Hollywood style of the era. Conversely, Bonnie and Clyde sought to defy the preconceptions of the Golden Age after the dissolution of the studio system, taking influence from the French New Wave to employ modern technology and unorthodox filmmaking techniques. The film foregrounds a gritty portrayal of two real life criminals – one which does not shy away from graphic violence and sexual undertones – birthing the New Hollywood era of filmmaking.

Body

Institutional context: Compare how Casablanca was produced by Warner Bros under the studio system (vertical integration, unbreakable contracts, star system, Hays code etc.). Whereas Bonnie and Clyde was produced after the Paramount Case, allowing for a greater deal of creative freedom within Warner Bros.

Technological context: Compare the styles of filmmaking (Classical Hollywood style vs French New Wave-influenced style). Mention specific examples rooted in key sequences, alongside the technology available to the studios. Filmed in the studio vs on-location.

Historical context: Compare how Casablanca was filmed and set during the First World War (Vichy water implications), but Bonnie and Clyde is set in a Great Depression 1930s (FDR posters plastered on the wall) , but released during the 1960s.

Comparing how the film stars are presented: Casablanca (Ilsa is glamorous and pristine, through key and fill lighting, Rick’s rugged appearance accentuated by lighting).

Conclusion

Ultimately, both films are apt representations of the production contexts that both films were produced under respectively. Casablanca epitomises the Classical Hollywood style typical of the films of the Golden Age, whereas Bonnie and Clyde paved the way for the New Hollywood era – embracing graphic violence and sexual content that defied the typicalities of the more traditional, conservative films of the previous age.

Essay – Version 1

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) and Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) are two films that are shining exemplars of two starkly contrasting production contexts within Hollywood. Casablanca was a film produced by Warner Brothers under the Hollywood Studio System that operated under the practice of vertical integration during the Golden Age. The film epitomises the rigid and traditional Classical Hollywood style of the era. Conversely, Bonnie and Clyde sought to defy the preconceptions of the Golden Age after the dissolution of the studio system. By taking influence from the French New Wave, employing modern technology and unorthodox filmmaking techniques, this appealed to the newly diverse cinematic landscape enjoyed by audiences throughout this period. The film foregrounds a gritty portrayal of two real life criminals – one which does not shy away from graphic violence and sexual undertones – birthing the New Hollywood era of filmmaking.

Casablanca’s conception originated with Warner Bros. buying the rights to a unproduced stage play, Everybody Comes to Rick’s, for $20,000. Afterwards, the studio quickly began work on building bespoke sets for the film, creating the illusion of exoticism by foregrounding the lavish production values that the studio poured into the construction. A clear example of this can be seen in the opening sequence of the film in which an expansively lavish set of Casablanca populated with countless extras takes place. This is revealed to the viewer through camerawork typical of the Classical Hollywood style: a crane shot that tilts down to reveal the opulent set. Conversely, Bonnie and Clyde strove to purport the highest level of authenticity and thus, chose to film the vast majority of the film on location with the implementation of natural lighting. The opening sequence of the film introduces us to Clyde through a wide shot filmed through a mosquito net, creating an atmosphere that feels much more tangible than Casablanca’s constructed reality. Akin to the French New Wave, the use of natural lighting serves to add an extra layer of authenticity to the film.

Casablanca is a product of the Golden Age of Hollywood that exemplifies the concept of film star ‘stables’ that were owned by the studios. Due to ‘unbreakable contracts’ that exclusively contracted actors to specific studios, Warner Bros. endeavoured to make apt use of their stars. With this in mind, the studio chose to cast Humphrey Bogart as Rick, a star who was often typecast as the ‘rugged individual’ archetype in films such as The Maltese Falcon (John Huston, 1941). Through this, Rick’s character was customised to suit Bogart’s acting capabilities, introducing us to him in the ‘Leaving Rick’s’ sequence by filming Bogart from a centrally framed low-angle shot whilst being cast in shadow to accentuate his masculinity. In addition to this, during the Paris flashback sequence, Rick dons a trench coat and hat during the train station scene. This subtly pays homage to Humphrey Bogart’s classic detective roles he was cast as during the Film Noir scene, demonstrating that Warner Bros. attempted to fully capitalise on the ‘stable’ of stars they possessed. The studio also chose Ingrid Bergman to play Ilsa, an internationally renowned actress. Throughout the film, Bergman was highly glamourised through the use of lavish costume design, hair, makeup, alongside the use of key lighting and soft focus to accentuate her beauty. This is highly typical of the Classical Hollywood style that Warner Bros. was renowned for at the time.

In contrast, the titular couple in Bonnie and Clyde are presented in a vastly different light. Instead of conforming to the ‘rugged individual’ protagonist archetype, Clyde is presented in a much more nuanced manner due to his ambiguous sexuality that Warren Beatty (producer and star) campaigned for. Towards the end of the opening sequence of the film, a closeup is displayed of Clyde drinking a bottle of Coke, which both connotes provocatively phallic imagery and is indicative of the Prohibition Era that was in effect during the 1930s. This is furthered later in the film when Clyde appears to be uninterested or perhaps unable to engage in sexual activity with Bonnie. Bonnie is presented in a much more seductive manner in contrast to Ilsa, which is immediately demonstrated to the audience through the first shot of the film – an extreme closeup of her luscious red lips, a symbol of sex. This, alongside the fact that Bonnie appears naked for the first scene of the film, presents her feminine beauty in a more natural and intimate manner than Ilsa’s artificially maintained beauty.

Casablanca’s production was spearheaded by Jack L. Warner – the president of Warner Brothers. A primary agenda of Warner was to feature the ongoing war prominently in the studio’s films, in an attempt to subtly signal America to join the war efforts. This is particularly evident in the final scene of the film, in which Captain Renault chooses to bin the Vichy-branded water bottle, displayed to the viewer through a closeup. This is symbolic of the studio’s negative views towards fascism, perhaps being indicative of the side the country eventually took when America joined the war. Historical context is also important to consider when evaluating the production contexts of Bonnie and Clyde. Although the film was released in 1967, it is set during the 1930s – a time in which the effects of the Great Depression coursed through all of America, particularly the poorer Southern states in which the film takes place. For example, the streets that the couple walk down in the opening sequence are barren, reflective of the Great Depression. The mise-en-scène is also meticulously selected to reflect the time period, such as the FDR presidential campaign posters that are plastered to the walls, serving to immerse the audience in the 1930s. Through this, viewers who had lived through this time period themselves were encouraged to empathise with Bonnie and Clyde’s struggles during this period of poverty and bleakness.

Casablanca was shot entirely in black and white, a typical feature of Warner Brothers’ ‘house style’ at the time. By 1942, colour had been implemented into a number films for around a decade, with studios such as MGM immediately choosing to embrace colour. MGM would go on to produce The Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming, 1939) a landmark of the cutting-edge Technicolor technology, but colour was considered by many other studios to merely be a ‘gimmick’. During the time of Casablanca’s release, black and white was arguably at its peak, and Warner Bros. believed that choosing to film in black and white – despite the introduction of colour technology – demonstrated artistic nuance, as the iconic ‘noir aesthetic’ had now been refined for over 50 years. Colour was not as ‘sterile’ as black and white was during this time, only being able to display highly saturated colours. Conversely, Bonnie and Clyde was shot in colour, aptly portraying a much grittier and authentic atmosphere in contrast to Casablanca romanticised ‘noir’ aesthetic. The film’s cinematographer, Burnett Guffey, once stated that Arthur Penn wanted the film to be “as real and untheatrical as possible” and the decision to embrace modern Technicolor technology supports this.

During the production of Casablanca, the studio was significantly limited by the Hays Code – a series of regulations that forbade graphic violence and sexual content to be displayed within the film. This is particularly evident in the final scene of the film in which Rick shoots Major Strasser, after which no blood is shown, indicative of the Hays Code restrictions. This conservative presentation of violence soon became a typical convention of the Classical Hollywood style, to which audiences became accustomed during the Golden Age. This greatly contrasts with how violence is presented throughout Bonnie and Clyde. After the dissolution of the studio system that occurred after the result of the Paramount Case, the Hays Code gradually became more lax over time, resulting in Bonnie and Clyde’s presentation of graphic violence as a means to shock audiences who had become accustomed to the conservative presentation of violence typical of Classical Hollywood. At the end of the ‘Botched Heist’ sequence, Clyde shoots a man in the mouth through a car window. This is presented to the viewer through rapid editing, cutting quickly between closeups of the man clinging to the car and reactionary shots of Clyde. The film does not shy away from its presentation of blood, with the film implementing the use of squibs filled with stage blood, which exploded upon impact. These were employed in this scene, alongside many others throughout the film, including the infamous massacre of the titular couple at the end of the film. This graphic display of violence serves to ground the film in reality and forces the audience to confront Bonnie and Clyde’s heinous actions.

Unconventional Auteur: Bonnie & Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967)

Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) could arguably be considered a film influenced by an array of creative auteurs and external inspirations, rather than a product created under the vision of a singular auteur. Including the prolific young directors of the French New Wave movement, the director of the film Arthur Penn, editor Dede Allen, and producer/star Warren Beatty, the final state Bonnie and Clyde exists as such due to the collaborative influence of these distant yet imperatively necessary auteurs.

Although the film was produced by Hollywood studio Warner Brothers, Bonnie and Clyde took a great deal of influence from the French New Wave. This movement is characterised by its particular focus on young, eccentric characters living in a poverty-stricken corner of society. Directors of the French New Wave often used handheld cameras to film in an improvisational and fluid style, in tandem with jump cuts to create a naturalistic and authentic atmosphere within their films.

The film’s director, Arthur Penn was highly influenced by this style of filmmaking, imbuing Bonnie and Clyde with many of these techniques. A clear example of this can be seen in the opening scene of the film, which displays Bonnie getting ready in her room, during which a handheld camera follows her movements spontaneously and fluidly. Bonnie’s entrapped state of mind is aptly conveyed when she is claustrophobically framed within her bed-frame. Penn also chose to shoot the vast majority of the film on location with natural lighting, only contributing to the film’s purported authenticity.

*Bonnie’s entrapped state of mind is illustrate through being claustrophobically fram*ed *through the bed-frame*

Dede Allen, a celebrated ‘auteur editor’ within Hollywood, also had a significant impact upon the film’s production. During her career, she pioneered the use of audio overlaps and jump cuts to create a sense of driving energy, and this can be clearly observed throughout Bonnie and Clyde. Allen also incorporated the technique of temporally disruptive editing throughout the film. In the opening sequence for example, Allen subtly conveys the passage of time through jump cuts whilst maintaining a fluid movement, only adding to the naturalistic tone of the film.

Bonnie and Clyde was produced by Warren Beatty, who also stars as Clyde in the film. Beatty was responsible for assembling most of the cast, alongside selecting Arthur Penn to direct the film, with Beatty choosing to give Penn 10% of the film’s profits. Beatty was arguably the driving force behind the film, overseeing each element of production. Beatty also spearheaded the film’s gritty and realistic portrayal of Bonnie and Clyde’s escapades – he insisted that the film would not shy away from portraying the duo as flawed and multi-faceted individuals. Beatty also decided to create an air of ambiguity concerning Clyde’s sexuality. All of this served to reject the traditional conventions of the Classical Hollywood Style, marking its place in film history as the trailblazing film of the New Hollywood era.

New Hollywood: Bonnie And Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967)

Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) is widely considered to be a landmark film in shaping what would later be known as the New Hollywood era of filmmaking that lasted throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s. There are several important contexts to consider when evaluating what factors influenced the film’s production.

*Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty in costume as Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow*

One of the most significant factors to consider is the cultural context within America throughout this period. During the late 1960s, a series of significant cultural events emanated throughout America during this period, including both the Civil rights movement as well as the Vietnam War – two majors sources of conflict and tension that manifested films including both Apocalypse Now (Francis Ford Coppola, 1979) and The Deer Hunter (Michael Cimino, 1978). Bonnie and Clyde arguably spearheaded this new era of filmmaking during this time, often considered to be a reflection of the rebellious spirit of America at the time, coming off the back of the dissolution of the studio system that gradually occurred after the Paramount Case in 1948. It is for the reason why Bonnie and Clyde is often cited as the first film of the New Hollywood era.

Another important context to consider is the historical context of the 1930s – the time period in which the film is set. The real life Bonnie and Clyde carried out their criminal activities during a time in which the lasting effects of the Great Depression were observable all across America, particularly the rural southern states in which the couple’s escapades occurred. The film aptly illustrates this time period, displaying barren streets that are plastered with posters advertising the FDR presidential campaign. As a result, audiences who had lived through this time period themselves were more likely to empathise with Bonnie and Clyde’s struggles within this time of poverty and bleakness.

Institutional and political contexts also played a key role in influencing the production of Bonnie and Clyde. The film was produced by Warner Brothers – one of the ‘Big Five’ Hollywood studios. Throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood, the studio garnered a reputation for making traditional and conservative films, keeping to a ‘house style’ that conformed to the regulations of the Hays Code. Bonnie and Clyde could be considered a drastic departure from this Classical Hollywood style – foregrounding both graphic violence and underlying sexual themes. This was initially viewed as controversial, facing particular opposition from Jack L. Warner who despite his fervent attempts, ultimately failed to block the production of the film. Despite this drastic shift in tone, the film was become a critical and commercial success, in large part due to the support of influential figures within the studio, namely the man responsible for spearheading the film’s release – producer and star, Warren Beatty.

The social context of the 1960s also had an impact on Bonnie and Clyde’s release. The film was released at a time when there was a great deal of interest in the lives of ordinary people and their struggles, which was largely popularised in America through this notion being commonly depicted within French New Wave cinema. Audiences were now exposed to film movements outside of Hollywood after the collapse of the studio system, and as a result, techniques and themes of other movements, including the French New Wave, were gradually imbued into the films of New Hollywood. Bonnie and Clyde took a great deal of influence from this film movement, with the its portrayal of the couple’s relationship and their struggles against the forces of authority resonating with many viewers, aiding the film to inevitably become a cultural touchstone.

Cutting-edge technology of the 1960s also played a role in the production of Bonnie and Clyde. The use of handheld cameras and long lenses served to create a more naturalistic atmosphere throughout the film, with this technology being used in a similar way during the French New Wave to achieve this effect. It was also one of the first films to utilise ‘squibs’ extensively. These were small explosive charges filled with stage blood that would detonate inside an actor’s clothes to purport violence in a more dynamic and authentic manner.

Bonnie & Clyde Close-Up (“Ballet Of Death” Sequence)

Overview

The ending sequence of Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) displays the tragic demise of the titular couple. After sharing one final innocent moment of happiness together, C.W.’s father fools the couple into stepping outside their car, after agreeing to turn in the couple to the police in exchange for C.W.’s freedom. The couple are brutally gunned down by lawmen, led by Frank Hamer – the man that the gang taunted with earlier in the film. This abrupt final scene is both powerful and poignant – serving as a fittingly inevitable end to the couple’s tumultuous journey portrayed over the course of the film.

Key Elements, Context, and Representation

The sequence opens with a wide shot of Bonnie and Clyde framed centrally as they walk out of a shop, donning cream-coloured clothing that serves to emphasise their purity. The couple act playfully, exuding a sense of child-like innocence as Clyde puts on a pair of broken glasses. This final moment of playful happiness is captured through the use of a crane shot, a more traditional filmmaking technique that is closely associated with the Classical Hollywood style.

As the couple enter the car, unbeknownst to the fact that it will be their final journey, no Bluegrass score accompanies this action, creating a much more sombre mood than what is usually associated with the gang’s car journeys. This contrast between the couple’s playful behaviour and the lack of non-diegetic sound creates a foreboding sense of unease. Clyde’s clumsiness and child-like behaviour also serve to juxtapose the couple’s heinous actions throughout the film.

During the journey, the camera work employed is of particular interest. It departs from the utilisation of long lenses throughout the film, a technique associated with the French New Wave that allowed for ease of filming. Instead, the cameras are placed in close proximity to Bonnie and Clyde, bringing the viewer closer to their final intimate moments together. This is particularly evident in a tight two-shot of the couple in the car, which only becomes tighter as the sequence progresses. Bonnie and Clyde also share a pear during the car journey, perhaps serving as a symbol of comfort and familiarity for the couple. We then cut to a sequence edited in parallel between shots filmed from the perspective of the car’s windscreen and shots of Malcolm not-so-subtly beckoning the couple to pull over on the side of rural road he is blocking, encouraging them to check on an apparently flat tyre. This action is displayed through the implementation of a Dutch angle shot, serving to create an off-kilter atmosphere.

We then cut to a rapid frenzy of editing that alternates between reactionary closeups of Bonnie and Clyde. This indicates that the couple just begin to realise what is happening to them in their last living moments, a second before it is too late. The final moment shared between the couple is showcased through an eye-line match, creating one final moment of romance. As the lawmen open fire, deafening gunshots explode into the sound mix which immediately alerts the viewer and heightens the dramatic value of the scene. The excessive display of graphic violence that ensues defies the prior conventions of Classical Hollywood.

Slow motion is also employed within this scene for the first time in the film, serving to emphasise the brutality of the scene. Through this, the shot of Clyde’s corpse rolling to the side is prolonged, inciting empathy towards the character within the viewer. Notably, neither Bonnie nor Clyde are shot in the face – preserving their purity and glamour. The final shot of the massacre is a wide shot that lingers on the two lifeless corpses, leaving the viewer to ponder the journey undertaken by Bonnie and Clyde over the course of the film.

*The final wide shot displaying the corpses of Bonnie and Clyde*

During the brief aftermath of the shooting, the camera glides behind the shattered car window. A bullet hole is displayed out of focus, subtly reinforcing the events of the shooting. Instead, Penn chooses to frame the lawmen in behind the car in focus, distancing the camera from their stoic demeanours. The ringleader, Frank Hamer, is dressed in all black, portraying him as particularly villainous. The abruptness of this ending is perhaps reminiscent of the French New Wave, a movement that strove to present an authentic depiction of reality. There is no superfluous ‘epilogue’ sequence, the film merely ends with this inspection of the couple’s lifeless corpses.

Bonnie & Clyde Close-Up (“Meeting Family” Sequence)

Overview

The “meeting family” sequence of Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) begins after Bonnie runs away from the gang into a field, after which Clyde desperately attempts to locate her as he repeatedly calls her name. After he finds Bonnie, she informs Clyde that she wishes to see her mother again. We then cut to a barren wheat field in which the members of the gang, now made up of: Bonnie, Clyde, Buck, Blanche, and C.W. convene with Bonnie’s family, in order to partake in a family gathering. This desolate location is highly symbolic, perhaps foreshadowing Bonnie and Clyde’s inevitable demise. To accentuate this, this sequence is filmed in a manner reminiscent of a dream sequence – providing the setting with an otherworldly quality. The sequence ends with Clyde’s boyish charm failing to convince Bonnie’s mother that everything is okay, as she tells him that “you best keep running, Clyde Barrow”.

Key Elements, Context, and Representation

The opening scene in which the gang attempt to locate Bonnie is a prime exemplar of the how the film takes dual influence from the familiar Classical Hollywood style alongside newer, more experimental influences such as the French New Wave. As for the Classical Hollywood style, the camera is placed on a rig to seamlessly track the car’s movements as the camera moves backwards. The use of a rig creates a highly controlled environment, typical of films such as Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942). The use of a crane shot is also employed to display Clyde chasing Bonnie through the field, a technique also frequently implemented throughout the films of the Golden Age. Techniques that are inspired by the French New Wave includes the use of long lenses to film. This, alongside improvised handheld camera movements and blocking when Clyde chases Bonnie through the wheat field, creates a naturalistic atmosphere. The scene is also shot on location, meaning that the visuals are not particularly clear. However, this only serves to add an extra layer of realism to the scene.

The weather also appears to break continuity during certain shots – the wheat field appears to be in shadow until it cuts to a closer angle, displaying a much sunnier scene. A piece of wheat also flaps in front of the camera, demonstrating the uncontrollable nature of filming on location. The fact that the couple lie in a dead wheat field is perhaps an example of metaphorical foreshadowing – Bonnie and Clyde’s demise is inevitable.

After Clyde agrees to the family gathering, we then cross-dissolve to a new location, the abandoned industrial wasteland. The sequence opens on a wide shot of this wasteland, displaying the moribund state it exists after the Great Depression. During the scenes that take place in this setting, a grainy filter is applied to the camera that was achieved by filming through a car windscreen. This creates a distant, otherworldly atmosphere to the scene, implying that these brief moments of happiness only prolong the couple’s inexorable downfall. The colouring also appears to be extremely washed out, further emphasising the barren atmosphere that the family are forced to seclude themselves within.

The closeup of Bonnie’s mother is also shot on a long lens, creating an entirely shallow depth of field behind her. This serves to separate her face from the background, drawing the viewer’s attention towards her withered appearance. Each character is also dressed in solemn, formal clothing – reminiscent of funeral attire, contributing the overall ‘death metaphor’ present throughout the sequence. The sound throughout the sequence also appears to be much more distant than normal, merely consisting of muffled diegetic ambience and dialogue. The use of frame rate drops are also employed, jarring the viewer and creating a disjointed atmosphere.

As Bonnie and Clyde innocently play with Bonnie’s nephew in the pit, Buck and Blanche awkwardly stand to the side in a subdued manner. From this, the viewer is able to surmise that Buck and Blanche have realised the inevitably of Bonnie and Clyde’s demise and are empathising with the couple’s blissful naïveté. Clyde’s charismatic charm doesn’t appear to convince Bonnie’s mother of his suitability as a partner for her daughter. During this, Bonnie is portrayed in a much less playful and flirtatious light – she takes on a solemn demeanour, displaying concern for her future with Clyde. As Bonnie’s mother delivers her truthful opinion of Clyde to his face, she is once again isolated in a closeup – emphasising that no one possesses any hope for their future.

As the characters slowly begin to leave the frame, the final conversations revert back to utilising a typical shot/reverse shot sequence. This reinforces the idea that the jovial family gathering has now concluded, and the gritty reality of the poverty-struck South has once again become apparent. The sequence ends with a wide shot of the abandoned wasteland, leaving the Barrow Gang isolated in the frame – informing us that the family does not intend to aid their efforts, and the gang is truly alone.

Bonnie & Clyde Close-Up (“Botched Heist” Sequence)

Overview

The “botched heist” sequence of Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) proves that not everything the gang attempts will go to plan, serving to highlight the gritty realism presented over the course of the film. The scene displays the titular couple attempting to rob a town bank, which seems to be going to plan until their attempted escape. The gang’s newly appointed getaway driver, C.W. Moss, inadvertently hinders the heist by parking the car away from the bank. Moss then struggles to pull away, accidentally hitting two cars. As the gang finally manages to drive away, a man jumps onto the car – prompting Clyde to shoot him in the face.

Key Elements, Context, and Representation

The sequence opens with an extreme long shot taken from under the awning of an establishment, serving to immerse the viewer in the evocative rural Southern town. This shot is deliberately framed as to draw the viewer’s attention towards the crossroads at the centre of the town, naturally guiding our focus towards the bank. The bank itself is highly decrepit and derelict, perhaps being indicative of the negative effects suffered by these small establishments after the Great Depression. Each extra that appears in the scene are real townsfolk, preserving to the authenticity of the scene.

As we cut to the bank itself, we are presented with an appropriately desolate setting – the use of a wooden brown further establishes the bank as part of the rural Southern community. Clyde wears a navy blue suit, juxtaposing Bonnie’s crème-coloured clothes – perhaps symbolising Clyde’s history with robbery and crime. Bonnie also interestingly dons a beret, an evocative piece of French fashion that subtly paying homage to the French New Wave, a movement that highly influenced the film’s production. The couple are also framed within a frame as they enter the bank, drawing further audience focus to them.

The dialogue and movements within the bank appear to be largely improvised, indicative of the film’s attempts to strive for reality. As Bonnie and Clyde holds up the bank, the soundscape is fully diegetic, which creates a naturalistic atmosphere. This scene is edited in parallel with C.W. Moss outside, attempting to park the car away from the bank. These shots are edited in a much more conventional sequence, being reminiscent of the Classical Hollywood style.

During the getaway itself, the diegetic sound of the alarm bell promptly enters the mix which immediately heightens the tension. The pace of editing also quickens, rapidly cutting between closeups of Clyde pointing his gun at the window with closeups of the man latched onto the car behind the window. As Clyde shoots the man in the mouth, we cut to a centrally-framed closeup in which a shockingly graphic amount of blood is displayed. This gratuitous display of violence breached the boundaries of what was allowed within cinema for the time, through which Bonnie and Clyde later garnered a notorious reputation for. After witnessing the couple’s distraught reactions, we cut to another closeup that showcases the man’s face sliding down the window. This repulsive display of violence instils a sense of uneasy discomfort within the viewer – the audience is forced to confront and later contemplate Clyde’s violent actions.

This sequence interestingly mirrors the earlier scene of Clyde robbing the grocery store in the opening sequence, yet the absence of a jaunty Bluegrass score strips the sequence of its prior light-hearted mood. The viewer is now fully confronted with the gritty reality of Bonnie and Clyde’s actions, enhancing the film’s endeavour to strive for naturalistic authenticity.

Bonnie & Clyde Close-Up (Opening Sequence)

Overview

The opening sequence of Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) promptly introduces us to the eponymous couple’s tumultuous relationship. They meet after Bonnie spots Clyde out of her window attempting to steal her mother’s car. The pair quickly hit it off, enjoying some Coca Cola before Clyde decides to hold up a grocery store. The sequence concludes with Bonnie and Clyde making a quick getaway in a stolen car. The opening sequence also serves to introduce us to the setting of 1930s Southern America, in which the effects of the Great Depression and the Prohibition Era subtly permeated throughout the country.

Key Elements, Context, and Representation

The sequence opens with the iconic Warner Brothers logo graded in a noticeably desaturated sepia tone. This alteration of the logo aptly fits the style of the film. The film itself begins with a sequence of still photographs that provide a split-second snapshot of life throughout the Southern states of America during the Great Depression. This style of reportage storytelling is converged purely though these black and white still images that purport a seemingly authentic image of poverty in America. This sequencing of images is accompanied by the sound of camera clicks, further contributing to the purported image of reality being presented.

The title cards displaying Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway’s names are both centralised and capitalised, before the title cards dissolve into red, perhaps being an early indication of the violent tone the film has. The lack of non diegetic sound throughout the opening titles serves to immerse the audience into the world of the film, which is attempting to purport a gritty, realistic documentary style. These pictures are intercut with the opening credits, which display the names of important key figures who collectively collaborated on the film. Firstly is the director of photography, Burnett Guffey, and editor Dede Allen – two key figures who were inspired by the French New Wave who contributed towards shaping the film into the way it is. The film also displays the names of the screenwriting duo – David Newman and Robert Benton. Bonnie and Clyde was the duo’s first effort, the film marking a period of collaboration between Newman and Benton between the late 1960s to the early 1980s. The film was arguably spearheaded by producer and star Warren Beatty, who was responsible for assembling the aforementioned screenwriters as well as the director, Arthur Penn. Beatty also decided to present Clyde as having an ambiguous sexuality throughout the film, which subverts the typical masculine qualities of the noble American hero.

The final pictures displayed are of Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty themselves in costume as Bonnie and Clyde, presented alongside some essential contextual info. This acts to link the superficial world of the film with the authentic reality of the real Bonnie and Clyde. Releasing in 1967, the film takes place in 1931 – a mere two years after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, inciting a period of mass poverty throughout America, a time in which people migrated across the country in order to eat and work.

The diegetic sound of Bonnie’s record player immediately provides a strong evocation of the 1930s, being a contemporary piece of the time. The sound gradually rises in the mix before we cross-fade into an extreme closeup of Bonnie’s lips. This first shot is extremely striking, contrasting Casablanca’s formal style of shot sequencing that involves a mid-shot followed by a closeup. Penn instead throws us straight into the action, immediately sexualising Bonnie through this extreme closeup. Her red lips are associated with morally dubious women and are symbolic of sex. The use of a handheld camera, cutting edge technology embraced by the French New Wave, allows for a quick pan to reveal Bonnie in the mirror. This movement feels highly spontaneous and not choreographed, unlike the camera movement present throughout Casablanca.

*The introductory shot of Bonnie, an extreme closeup of her lips*

Bonnie being naked in her room was particularly risqué for the time – her proactive state represents her as wild and free-spirited. Throughout this first scene, the camera remains tightly focused in on Bonnie, allowing the viewer to form an immediate connection to her. She is positioned behind the bars of her bed, suggesting that she currently feels imprisoned by her life. The camera then rises up into an extreme closeup of her eyes. During this, the camera does not focus immediately and has to pull back. The use of a handheld camera allows for this fluid and spontaneous movement reminiscent of the French New Wave. Bonnie’s beauty is presented in a more authentic and naturalistic manner, which contrasts Ilsa who is presented in soft focus with meticulous use of lighting to purport her beauty artificially. This opening sequence of Bonnie in her room pushes the regulations of the Hays code to the limit, serving as a precedent for what is to come.

The first shot of Clyde is filmed through the mosquito net, creating an authentic atmosphere that feels more tangible than Casablanca’s constructed reality. The film was shot entirely on location in the Southern states of America, displaying the poverty that these streets endured throughout the 1930s. This depiction of poverty is also akin to the French New Wave. Natural lighting is also used, further adding to the naturalistic setting. When Bonnie talks, she does not speak with a Mid-Atlantic accent like Ilsa, but instead conveys a much more realistic depiction of a regional Southern accent. During her first line of dialogue, the low-angle shot of Bonnie in the window is filmed with a zoom lens from a distance. This convenient style of filmmaking allows for each shot to be filmed in one position, this being representative of New Hollywood’s influences. The dialogue exchanged between the couple is recorded on location and, because of this, appears to be buried in the mix which creates a more naturalistic feel.

In films like Casablanca, women such as Ilsa portrayed in a much more elegant and graceful manner. In Bonnie and Clyde however, Bonnie’s flirtatious behaviour towards Clyde marks a particularly edgy portrayal of a female character for the 1960s. The film presents Bonnie as a bored and uneducated waitress, and Clyde as a convict. Being characteristic of the French New Wave, the film is presents a ground story about real lives – encouraging the viewer to empathise with the couple more. As the couple walk the streets, the poverty-stricken nature of the town becomes apparent, reflecting the effects of the Great Depression.

The couple then decide to drink some Coca Cola, during which the bottles connote provocatively phallic imagery. This sexually suggestive imagery pushes the boundaries of what was acceptable in Hollywood during the 1960s. This scene is also introduced through a closeup of Clyde drinking from the bottle, with no contextual establishing shots used. The fact that Bonnie and Clyde choose to drink Coca Cola is also perhaps representative of the Prohibition Era that was still in effect during 1931. Clyde’s pistol also provides more sexually suggestive imagery when Bonnie touches it. The mise-en-scène present throughout the scene is also highly realistic, with Franklin D. Roosevelt campaign posters being plastered on the walls, serving to immerse the audience in the 1930s time period. The fact that the majority of the sequence is made up of diegetic sound, most of which was recorded on set, helps to create authentic verisimilitude throughout the scene.

*Clyde drinking the Coke bottle is both a phallic symbol and represents the Prohibition Era*

Clyde is portrayed as physically debilitated as he limps over the course of the entire film, aligning with his prison backstory that he informs Bonnie of earlier in the scene. His physical disability further emasculates Clyde, providing more nuance and depth to his character. As he enters the grocery store, we do not actually see the robbery. The film is attempting to direct its focus towards the couple’s relationship, rather than the illegal acts that they involve themselves in, the audience is thus denied the pleasure of seeing a thrilling robbery set-piece.

As the couple make their escape, a upbeat non-diegetic promptly enters the mix. This Bluegrass score is notably banjo-oriented, creating a playful and light-hearted mood as Bonnie and Clyde steal the car and make their escape. Back projection is also implemented to create the illusion of Clyde driving the car, with a similar technique being employed during the Paris flashback sequence in Casablanca.

Arthur Penn: Copycat Auteur

The lasting influence of the French New Wave ultimately resulted in the films of the New Hollywood era taking on a particular style that greatly contrasted the Classical Hollywood style present throughout the Golden Age. Instead of a studio institution collaborating as a collective auteur, this new era of filmmaking was instead characterised by a small group of young creative minds collaborating within the new landscape of Hollywood. It is important to observe each of the creative forces that contributed towards Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) to evaluate whom is responsible for how the final film looks and feels.

The two screenwriters that worked on Bonnie and Clyde were David Newman and Robert Benton. After meeting at Esquire magazine, this screenwriting duo often collaborated together from the late 1960s through to the early 1980s. Bonnie and Clyde was the duo’s first screenwriting effort, containing highly authentic and naturalistic dialogue – reminiscent of the French New Wave. This is representative of the young aspiring filmmakers, who were able to share their creative voices to the world within the landscape of New Hollywood.

The film’s director was Arthur Penn, known for directing critically acclaimed American films throughout the 1960s, such as The Chase (1966), Alice’s Restaurant (1969), and most notably – Bonnie and Clyde (1967). Collaborating alongside producer and actor Warren Beatty, Penn was strongly influenced by the French New Wave when creating Bonnie and Clyde, with the film itself only accentuating the creative influence that this new generation of filmmakers went on to be inspired by. Because of this, Arthur Penn cannot be considered an auteur, as he was not the sole creative mind behind the production of the film.

Bonnie and Clyde was edited by Dede Allen, a celebrated ‘auteur editor’ within Hollywood. She had an extended collaboration with Arthur Penn lasting nine years and during this time, she pioneered the use of auditory overlaps and emotional jump cuts. This stylistic manner of editing was heavily inspired by the French New Wave, meaning that Dede Allen played a crucial role in Bonnie and Clyde’s production.

Bonnie and Clyde was produced by Warren Beatty, who also stars as Clyde in the film. Beatty was responsible for assembling the aforementioned screenwriters – Benton and Newman – alongside most of the cast. Even Arthur Penn was specifically selected by Beatty to direct the film, with Beatty choosing to give Penn 10% of the film’s profits. Beatty was arguably the driving force behind the film, overseeing each element of production.

Escaping The Eight: The French New Wave

The French New Wave was a movement that emerged in the 1950s, gaining worldwide attention throughout the 1960s. It was characterised by a rejection of traditional cinematic techniques – embracing experimental methods of filmmaking viewed as a radical departure from the status quo of cinema. This movement’s cultural impact greatly influenced films of the New Hollywood era, inspiring young independent filmmakers to hone and display their artistic vision.

A key element of the French New Wave centred around creating a different world on screen. Pioneering filmmakers, such as Jean-Luc Godard, strove to illustrate an artistic visual language that was much more experimental and ‘looser’ than the Classical Hollywood style. The French New Wave implemented techniques such as non-linear narratives alongside unorthodox camera angles and editing techniques to create a wholly distinctive style of filmmaking.

*Anna Karina, a star of the French New Wave, being filmed by Jean-Luc Godard, a renowned filmmaker of the movement*

This wave of filmmaking also manifested new voices into the cinematic landscape. These up-and-coming filmmakers were often young and had grown up with cinema existing as a prominent art form their entire lives. These new voices brought a fresh perspective to the medium, challenging the pre-conceived notions of what cinema could and should be.

Films of the French New Wave were typically shown in smaller art house theatres, displayed to audiences who sought a departure from the homogenised mainstream cinema of the Hollywood Studio System. This only served to bolster the French New Wave’s notoriety in America, aiding its later influence towards Hollywood studio-produced films, such as Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967).

The French New Wave also brought about an array of unorthodox filmmaking techniques to the table. Within films such as Breathless (Jean-Luc Godard, 1960), the filmmakers of this wave of cinema employed specific techniques such as filming on location with a handheld camera, natural lighting, and jump cuts to create a more authentic and intimate feel. This, alongside actors often breaking the fourth wall by addressing the audience directly, created a sense of immediacy and spontaneity within the films of the French New Wave.

Waving Goodbye: New Hollywood (1961-1990)

The decline of the Hollywood studio system began in the late 1950s, after the Paramount Antitrust Case of 1948. This prohibited the studios from owning the cinemas in which their films were shown, and this greatly encouraged a rise in competition between the studios. This ultimately led to a much more diverse landscape of cinema in America, as each studio became influenced by the filmmaking techniques of other cultures, such as the French New Wave.

Alongside this, the rise of television of also contributed to the start of the New Hollywood era. During the 1950s, televisions became increasingly available due to their price steadily decreasing as the technology became cheaper to manufacture. As more households acquired a TV, the demand for television content increased and this led to an increase in the production of TV programmes. Television was a new and exciting form of entertainment, creating a new array of genres such as sitcoms and game shows. This ultimately resulted in a decline in popularity of cinemas as a form of entertainment, as families chose to watch films and TV from the comfort of their own home.

During the Golden Age of Hollywood, the studio system dominated the distribution of films that were shown in the cinema. Because of this, there was no opportunity for any independent films to be shown to American audiences. After the studios lost their power, independent filmmakers were now able to distribute their own films. This ultimately led to an emergence of new independent perspectives in the landscape of American cinema.

A significant development within the New Hollywood era was the rise of two systems working in parallel – independently produced films and studio produced films. Independent filmmakers, who had been exposed to films from around the world, often took advantage of cutting-edge technology such as 16mm film to produce their own low-budget productions that often experimented with the typical conventions of the prior American filmmaking landscape. These films usually had to be financed by relying on friends and colleagues of the filmmaker.

Simultaneously, the major film studios were producing more adventurous and nuanced films that challenged the status quo of the Classical Hollywood era. These films grew larger in both scale and budget, and were designed to appeal to a wide audience. This ultimately provided a dual filmmaking platform that broadened the cinematic diet of the American audience – viewers were able to simultaneously experience the unique and personal stories of the young independent filmmakers alongside experiencing the classic blockbuster entertainment that they had come to expect from Hollywood throughout the Golden Age.

Throughout this New Hollywood period, Arthur Penn was a prolific filmmaker who paved the way for the rise of independent cinema and the increasing influence of auteurs throughout the film industry. His film, Bonnie and Clyde (1967), was revolutionary in the way of challenging the conventions of the Hollywood studio system. Inspired by the French New Wave, Arthur Penn, alongside other visionary directors of this era, sought to create a film that did not shy away from a raw and violent portrayal of crime – a stark departure from the sanitised, formulaic style of storytelling that dominated the films of the Golden Age.

Bonnie And Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967)

Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) is a biographical neo-noir crime drama that follows the capers of the infamous crime duo: Bonnie Parker (Faye Dunaway) and Clyde Barrow (Warren Beatty). The film is arguably a landmark of the ‘New Hollywood’ era, epitomising the conventions offered by this new age after the decline of the studio system.

The titular couple meet after Clyde attempts to steal Bonnie’s mother’s car. The two quickly hit it off, and they soon become partners in crime – holding up banks for the thrill of it, despite their attempts being not particularly lucrative. The couple then recruit C.W. Moss, a petrol station attendant, as their getaway driver and later Clyde’s older brother Buck alongside his wife Blanche soon join the gang.

After a heist goes wrong, the gang flee to Missouri before they are located by the police. Two officers are killed in a shootout, and the gang also manages to take a police ranger, Frank Hamer, hostage whom the gang take photos with, before tying him to a boat and setting him free down the river.

A sudden raid catches the gang off guard, killing Buck and injuring Blanche’s eye – Bonnie, Clyde, and C.W. are barely able to escape themselves. The trio seek refuge at C.W.’s father’s house, who believe that the couple have corrupted his son after he sees a new tattoo on his chest that he decided to get after Bonnie’s suggestion. Seeing this, C.W.’s father strikes a deal with Hamer, allowing the police to trap Bonnie and Clyde in exchange for C.W.’s freedom. The film ends with the couple being mercilessly gunned down after being trapped by the police.

The film was directed by Arthur Penn, who set out to break the conventions of the Classical Hollywood style present throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood. Sex and graphic violence is openly depicted throughout the film, which is evident in Clyde’s ambiguous sexuality alongside the brutal violence portrayed in scenes such as the gang’s getaway and the brutal ending. The film was also influenced considerably by French New Wave cinema, which was typically characterised by rapid tonal shifts and experimental editing techniques.

Bonnie and Clyde’s narrative structure is linear, but utilises jarring time jumps to create a film with noticeably unorthodox pacing. I found this to be the main drawback of the film, as although the first third of the film is densely packed with lots of events edited in rapid succession, the film seems to ‘peter out’ afterwards with not much occurring until the very end of the film.

I did enjoy Bonnie and Clyde for the light-hearted crime it had to offer. The film’s implementation of unorthodox filmmaking techniques also kept me intrigued throughout. However, I didn’t feel much emotional attachment towards any of the characters, and the film’s peculiar pacing ultimately resulted in a disjointed narrative experience.

Overall, I would rate Bonnie and Clyde ★★★½.

Unconventional Auteur: Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942)

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) is a prime exemplar of the Warner Brothers ‘house style’ that the studio was famously regarded for. Involving the executives of the studio collaborating on each film together, this practice became known as a ‘studio auteur’ style of filmmaking, in which the creative output was a communal effort from the studio, rather than a single creative mind taking the reigns.

Although the director of Casablanca, Michael Curtiz cannot be considered as the sole creative mind behind the making of the film, his trailblazing directorial techniques must be made note of. Boasting a vast filmography of over 100 films, Curtiz honed his skills as a director particularly concerning the implementation of lighting to create a particular aesthetic. Curtiz expertly utilised main, back, and fill lighting to illuminate Ingrid Bergman in a highly flattering and glamorous manner. Ilsa dons a white costume, representative of her purity, and her eyes appear to glisten which serves to accentuate her beauty. Ingrid Bergman even requested to only be filmed from same angle, as she believed it showcased her best features. Conversely, Humphrey Bogart is predominantly shot in dimmer lighting which is emblematic of Rick’s ambiguous intentions. Lighting is used to draw attention to Bogart’s rugged and weathered face, starkly juxtaposing Ilsa’s radiant appearance and portraying him as the noble American protagonist.

A technique frequently employed by Curtiz throughout Casablanca involves pulling out the camera from a two-shot in order to reveal a third person in the frame. This is an example of efficient camerawork, in which the editing is able to naturally blend into the background, and the requirement for any potentially jarring cuts is alleviated. This aligns with the studio’s primary aim of foregrounding the narrative first and foremost. The camera movements throughout the film are also highly sophisticated and seamless. Within Rick’s café, the camera often appears to smoothly glide around the set in a manner reminiscent of a Steadicam, which wasn’t invented until 1974.

The dialogue throughout the film is fast paced, merely serving as exposition to drive the narrative forward. A clear example of this can be seen during the Paris flashback sequence, in which Rick and Ilsa’s dialogue succinctly and efficiently explains why the Nazis are invading France. The couple’s dialogue can also be considered highly melodramatic, which reflects the conventions of the romance genre that the film conforms to. The fast paced nature of the dialogue is perhaps best exemplified in the closing sequence of the film, in which a multiplicity of iconic lines, such as “we’ll always have Paris” are swiftly exchanged between Rick and Ilsa. During this, the couple are framed in a tight two-shot with a shallow depth of field, focusing the viewer’s attention exclusively towards the dialogue.

*A tight two-shot of Rick and Ilsa from the final scene of Casablanca*

Max Steiner, the film’s composer, also played a vital role within the ‘studio auteur’, serving to bolster the emotional weight of the narrative through the apt use of both diegetic and non-diegetic score. During the opening sequence, Steiner’s highly triumphant non-diegetic score enters the mix in a grandiose manner as the credits roll, which naturally segues into the French national anthem. This provides a twofold sense of international exoticism alongside patriotism. The film’s iconic theme – As Time Goes By – was also selected by Steiner to be played by Sam in Rick’s café, acting as a diegetic score. The particular 1931 jazz piece provides an appropriately sentimental and romantic evocation.

Executive producer Jack L. Warner’s name is the first to be credited in Casablanca, being indicative of his influence upon the production. Warner was an interventionist, and vehemently believed that America should join the war efforts in Europe. He is responsible for the war undertones that permeate throughout the entire film. Warner even rushed onstage at the 1943 Academy Awards to collect Casablanca Best Picture Oscar, to the dismay of producer Hal B. Wallis. This demonstrates the contention concerning the film’s true ownership, which was ambiguous due to the ‘studio auteur’ environment that the film was conceived under.

The Golden Age Of Hollywood: Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942)

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) is a film that arguably epitomises the landscape of filmmaking that existed in America throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood. It was produced under the context of the studio system, in which the Big Five and Little Three dominated the playing field of Hollywood, operating under a vertically integrated system.

In late 1941, Warner Bros. producer Hal B. Wallis became fascinated by an unproduced stage play called Everybody Comes to Rick’s. In late December of that same year, the studio bought the film rights for $20,000 and changed the title to Casablanca. The studio quickly began work on building bespoke sets for the film, creating the illusion of exoticism by foregrounding the lavish production values that the studio poured into the construction. Key set locations include the streets of Casablanca, the streets of Paris, and of course – Rick’s Café Americain, the primary location of the film. Each of these sets were populated with a multitude of extras in creating an artificial sense of hustle and bustle.

The film is both set and was filmed during the events of the Second World War. Because of this, executive producer Jack L. Warner pioneered the heavy wartime undertones featured throughout the film, as he vehemently believed that it would strongly encourage America to join the war effort. The final scene is particularly notable in this regard, as when Renault chooses to bin the Vichy-branded water bottle, it is symbolic of the studio’s views on fascism. Due to the ongoing war, the studio was not allowed to film at an airport after dark. Warner Bros. instead decided to film on a sound stage using a cardboard cutout of a plane – playing with perspective to create the illusion of a full-sized aeroplane.

*The Vichy water bottle is disposed of by Renault, being indicative of Warner Bros.’ views on fascism*

Casablanca was shot entirely in black and white, which was highly characteristic of Warner Bros. at the time. By 1942, colour had been implemented into a number films for around a decade, with studios such as MGM immediately choosing to embrace colour. MGM would go on to produce The Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming, 1939) a landmark of the cutting-edge Technicolor technology, but the technology was considered by many other studios to be a ‘gimmick’. During the time of Casablanca’s release, black and white was arguably at its peak, and Warner Bros. believed that choosing to film in black and white – despite the introduction of colour technology – demonstrated artistic nuance, as the iconic ‘noir aesthetic’ had now been refined for over 50 years. Colour was not as ‘sterile’ as black and white was during this time, only being able to display highly saturated colours.

Despite the fact that Casablanca is now a landmark of American cinema, only three actors who received screen credit were born in the United States: Humphrey Bogart (Rick), Dooley Wilson (Sam), and Joy Page (Annina Brandel). All of the other actors were European exiles who had fled the war, landing themselves in Hollywood. Many of the actors who appear as Nazis in the film were in fact German Jews who had escaped from Nazi Germany, with Conrad Veidt, Major Strasser’s actor, being forced to flee Germany after the SS learned of his friendship with the Jewish community. Veidt was convinced that he was aiding the war effort by playing a Nazi villain.

Casablanca is also a product of the Golden Age of Hollywood that exemplifies the ‘stables’ of film stars owned by the studios. Due to ‘unbreakable contracts’ that exclusively contracted actors to specific studios, Warner Bros. endeavoured to make apt use of their stars, The studio chose to cast Humphrey Bogart as Rick. Throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood, Bogart was often typecast as the ‘rugged individual’ archetype in films such as The Maltese Falcon (John Huston, 1941) and Rick’s character was customised to suit Bogart’s acting capabilities.

Ilsa’s actress, Ingrid Bergman, was an internationally renowned Swedish actress known for her radiant beauty. Warner Bros. capitalised upon this by casting Bergman as Ilsa, accentuating her glamour by utilising lighting and costume design to portray Ilsa in a glamorous manner. The fact that Bergman measured two inches taller than Bogart did not align with the gender stereotypes at the time of release. Because of this, Bogart was actually made to stand on boxes during specific shots of the film to make him appear taller than Bergman.

Casablanca Close-Up (Closing Sequence)

Overview

The final sequence of Casablanca is widely regarded as one of the most poignant scenes across cinema. We are displayed a heartfelt final goodbye between Rick and Ilsa, before Rick shoots Major Strasser – symbolising good triumphing over evil. The sequence ends with Rick and Renault walking off into the mist, before Rick speaks the iconic final line of the film: “I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship”.

Cinematography

The sequence opens on a mid-tracking shot of an airport attendee, before coming to rest on the moving car. The camera then tracks the movements of the passengers leaving the car, before pulling out further into a five-shot that displays who Captain Renault is speaking to. This is a clear example of the Classical Hollywood style of camera technique, and blocking which prevents the requirement for any jarring cuts that would shatter the immersion for the viewer.

Rick and Ilsa’s final exchange is filmed with a tight two-shot, framing them in a romantic manner. This also alleviates the requirement to film a shot/reverse shot sequence, which would be less immersive. Both characters are filmed in a shallow depth of focus, directing the viewer’s attention towards Rick and Ilsa.

Sound

A number of reoccurring leitmotifs can be heard in Steiner’s non-diegetic score during this sequence, including As Time Goes By. This encourages the viewer to reminisce on Rick and Ilsa’s relationship, and how it has evolved over the course of the film.

Mise-en-scène

Lighting is utilised to make Rick’s eyes glisten alongside Ilsa’s for the the first time, emphasising the heartfelt nature of their final conversation. He has finally come to terms with his relationship with Ilsa.

Editing

A rapid shot/reverse shot sequence is employed between Rick and Major Strasser heightens the tension of the scene, before cutting to an over-the-shoulder shot that displays Rick’s quickdraw victory.

Performance

Renault’s line “round up the usual suspects” harkens back to his earlier line heard in the opening sequence. It informs us that he is not going to incriminate Rick, reinforcing his sleazy demeanour.

Context and Representation

Instead of immediately shooting Strasser, Rick gives him three chances before finally shooting him in a non-fatal way. This represents Rick as the noble rugged individual American protagonist archetype.

When Strasser is shot, no blood is displayed due to the restrictions of the Hays Code. This emphasises the content restrictions that Casablanca had to abide by.

Renault actively chooses to throw the Vichy-labelled water into the bin, proceeding to then kick it. This symbolically reflects Jack L. Warner’s views on the abolition of fascism – it is his way of encouraging America to join the war.

Casablanca Close-Up (“Play It, Sam” Sequence)

Overview

This sequence begins with Rick glumly drinking in his café alone, after coincidentally reuniting with Ilsa after she happens to walk into his abode, stating the famous line: “of all the gin joints in all the towns in all the world, she walks into mine”. After Sam walks in, he requests for him to play As Time Goes By, reminding himself of his time with Ilsa in Paris. We then transition into a flashback sequence. This example of analepsis serves to contextualise Rick and Ilsa’s relationship in Paris, also informing us that Ilsa ran away without telling Rick in order to save her husband – Laszlo – whom she’d presumed to be dead in a concentration camp.

Cinematography

The scene where Rick sits in the bar is shot with dim lighting, shrouding Rick within a thick shadow. This aptly reflects his distraught state of mind.

The closeup of Ilsa’s final note to Rick is left on the screen for an appropriate amount of time as to provide the viewer with enough time to read it. The fact that the ink is melting on the page is perhaps also symbolic of the two lovers’ relationship melting away.

As Ilsa enters Rick’s café when we return to the present, over-exposure is implemented to portray Ilsa as a beacon of light. This illustrates her as an angelic deity, entering Rick’s dark inner sanctum.

Sound

As we transition into the analeptic flashback sequence, Steiner’s non-diegetic soars to a crescendo in the mix.

During the café sequence, Sam can be seen playing As Time Goes By, which recontextualises the previous interaction between Sam and Ilsa.

Mise-en-scène

The shot of Rick and Ilsa driving is shot with the use of back projection, creating the illusion of a Parisian vista being behind the couple.

Makeup has been applied to Rick and Ilsa to make them appear younger during the flashback sequence. Rick’s face appears to be much less wrinkly and rugged due to the fact that he is wearing concealer.

The Eiffel Tower can be seen in the background of the set, informing the audience that we are in Paris. A number of props can also be seen throughout this sequence, such as Ilsa’s beret and a model of the Eiffel Tower in the café. These silently remind the viewer of the location that this flashback is taking place in – Paris.

The heavy rain at the train station as Rick hopelessly waits for Ilsa to arrive is an example of pathetic fallacy, reflecting Rick’s distressed inner turmoil.

Editing

Despite the fact that Sam is playing piano, the camera remains on a closeup of Rick, highlighting his importance as the protagonist.

To initiate the flashback sequence, the camera pushes into a tight closeup of Rick, before fading to white. We then cross-fade between an array of positive memories of Rick and Ilsa in Paris, characterising their relationship.

Performance

Rick utters his famous line: “Here’s looking at you, kid” during the flashback, foreshadowing Rick and Ilsa’s final goodbye at the end of the film.

Context and Representation

The use of analepsis in the film is a notable deviation from the Classical Hollywood style. The vast majority of films released throughout this period were told in a predominantly linear fashion, as to tell a simple narrative in a clear and easily digestible fashion. Despite this, the extended flashback sequence is told through normal continuity as to not confuse the viewer.

The striking implementation of real wartime newsreel footage ground this sequence in reality, reinforcing the war setting that the film was both set and filmed during.

Rick dons a trench coat and hat during the train station scene, paying homage to Humphrey Bogart’s classic detective roles during the Film Noir scene. This is an example of Warner Bros. capitalising on the ‘stable’ of stars that they possessed, using them to their fullest capability.

Auteur

The dialogue during the flashback sequence is highly expositional, serving to clearly explaining the events of the Nazis invading France. The viewer now has a clear understanding of Rick and Ilsa’s relationship in Paris, and thus forms an emotional connection to them.

Casablanca Close-Up (“Leaving Rick’s” Sequence)

Overview

This sequence establishes the foundations of the history that Rick, Ilsa, and Sam share together during their time in Paris. At this point, the events of what actually happened are shrouded in mystery, and the viewer is left to ponder why the relationship between the characters is so tense. This sequence also introduces us to the main theme of the film – As Time Goes By – which is performed by Sam.

Cinematography

We spend the majority of the conversation between Sam and Ilsa looking at Ilsa, with the typical shot/reverse shot sparsely being used.

As Sam plays As Time Goes By we cut to an extended reactionary shot of Ilsa. From this, the viewer is able to infer that she has an emotional connection to the song.

As Rick enters the room, we cut to a low-angle shot that frames him centrally. This provides an appropriately dramatic entrance for the tense reunion between the past lovers.

Rick’s depth of field is much deeper than Ilsa’s subconsciously diverting the viewer’s attention towards Ilsa’s glamour. The closeup of Rick draws attention to his rugged, craggy appearance, whilst also being able to take in the surroundings of the café.

Sound

As Time Goes By is expertly implemented as an emotionally manipulative diegetic piece that provides an appropriate romantic evocation – it was specifically selected by Max Steiner himself.

As Rick and Ilsa see each other, Steiner’s emotional score promptly enters the mix, highlighting the tension between the couple.

Mise-en-scène

Rick’s café as a set is arguably the heart of the production, being meticulously designed and highly expensive. The location is inevitably displayed often, foregrounding the lavish production values.

Ilsa wears extravagant jewellery that glistens in the light, highlighting her beauty.

Careful blocking of the actors allows for everything of importance to be visible in the frame. For example, Laszlo moves out of the way when Renault calls a waiter to the table in order to display who he is talking to.

Editing

In typical Classical Hollywood fashion, Curtiz employs a shot/reverse shot sequence between Rick and Ilsa. However, the closeups of Ilsa are much more prolonged, highlighting her radiant appearance.

Reframing the composition of the shot provides a seamless transition from a four-shot to a three-shot, reducing the frequency of potentially jarring cuts.

Performance

At the end of the sequence, Rick silently conveys his emotions. His distraught facial expression emphasises his emotional inner turmoil as he turns to face the camera. Although he doesn’t look directly into the camera, this mid shot of Rick appropriately illustrates his wistful state of mind.

Context and Representation

The dialogue between Rick and Ilsa is highly melodramatic, reflecting the conventions of the romance genre that the film conforms to. The specific language used successfully manipulates the viewer to tug on their heartstrings and emotional resonate with the characters.

Throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood, Humphrey Bogart was a film star who was often typecast as the ‘rugged individual’ archetype. Studios capitalised upon the fact that audiences went to see films in order to see their favourite stars, and Rick’s character epitomises Bogart’s acting strengths.

Casablanca Close-Up (“Laszlo and Ilsa” Sequence)

Overview

This sequence serves to introduce us to two more important characters in the film – Victor Laszlo and Ilsa Lund. As they sit at a table in the café, we learn that Victor Laszlo is a fugitive Czech Resistance leader who narrowly escaped a concentration camp. Strasser confronts Laszlo in the café, and the two face off against each other in attempt to stand their ground. Under Major Strasser’s command, Captain Renault arranges a meeting with Laszlo for the next morning.

Cinematography

A tracking shot is used to follow the movements of the couple as they enter the cafe, diverting the viewer’s attention towards them.

During the dialogue sequence, the camera moves fluidly, panning up and down whilst maintaining a gliding motion. This allows the composition of the shot to easily be reframed without having a convoluted shot/reverse shot sequence.

Main, back, and fill lighting is used to light Ilsa in a highly flattering and glamours manner, as opposed to Renault who is lit more modestly, in order to appear more compassionate.

The closeups of Ilsa use a much shallower depth of field than the closeups of Lazslo, which fully draws the viewer’s attention towards her glamorous appearance.

Sound

When Laszlo and Ilsa approach Sam, the diegetic sound of his piano playing rises in the mix, immersing the viewer into their position. Conversely, the piano lowers in the mix during the dialogue scenes in order to efficiently convey exposition.

Mise-en-scène

In the last sequence, we were introduced to Rick wearing a white suit. As Lazslo and Ilsa enter the café, we can see that the couple are also both wearing white – with Ilsa’s costume being the whitest. This use of colour is representative of the characters’ purity and innocence, whilst also drawing the viewer’s eyes towards Ilsa’s radiant appearance.

Editing

When Laszlo speaks to the resistance member, Curtiz employs the use of a shot/reverse shot sequence to display who is talking at a specific moment.

Performance

Laszlo’s expression is stoic, emphasising his resilient nature after enduring the torturous concentration camp. Ilsa, on the other hand, appears to be nervous as she enters Rick’s abode, provoking questions in the viewer’s mind. We also see Sam’s reaction to the couple’s arrival – his face exudes a sense of apprehension when he sees Ilsa, which suggests that he knows her from the past.

Context and Representation

Ilsa (played by Ingrid Bergman) was an international film star and was thus dressed in a radiant manner, andlit in a highly flattering lighting in order to fully accentuate her feminine beauty. This can be seen through her meticulous neat hair and how her skin does not contain a single blemish. Bergman was predominantly filmed from her left side, so that the three-point lighting caught her eyes in a way that made them appear to shine.

Conversely, the male characters – such as Rick and Laszlo -are lit in are a more obscured lighting to emphasise their ruggedness. This is exemplary of Warner Bros. selling the ideal of glamour within their films, a notion that was highly typical of the Classical Hollywood style.

Ilsa speaks in a Mid-Atlantic accent – a superficial accent used frequently throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood. This accent blends the British and American accents in a way that appeals to both audiences and also conveys a sense of aristocracy and elegance.

Major Strasser is presented as a cold and ruthless force during his confrontation with Lazslo, standing over him to assert his dominance. Laszlo then stands up out of his chair to tower over him, shifting the power dynamic. This paints Laszlo as the ‘noble European’, standing up to the nefarious Nazi forces.

Casablanca Close-Up (“Rick’s Introductory” Sequence)

Overview

“Rick’s Introductory Sequence” serves to introduce us to the primary location of Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) – Rick’s Café Américain. The entire café was a set built for the film, and this sequence serves to foreground the illicit dealings that occur within the establishment, alongside introducing us to the protagonist of the film after 10 minutes of build-up – Rick Blaine played by Humphrey Bogart.

Cinematography

The scene opens on a long shot of Rick’s café, which then cuts to a wide shot that clearly displays the sign for the viewer to see. This sequence of shots is typical of the Classical Hollywood style that Casablanca epitomises.

Curtiz employs a multitude of sophisticated filmmaking techniques in this sequence that are presented in a seamless manner. The camera movements are very smooth and appear to glide around the set, which was achieved by the bespoke set constructed purely for the film. This seamless camera movement is reminiscent of a Steadicam, which was not invented until 1974.

One character holds the door open for the camera, breaking the fourth wall. This is almost as if the camera is a customer entering Rick’s café which serves to provide a heightened sense of immersion. The shot then becomes a crab shot, displaying the set in all its splendour.

The camera tracks a waiter’s movements across the cafe, creating a flowing rhythm as we move to the new location which lies deeper within the cafe. This area exists within the inter area of the bar, perhaps representing a deeper core of Rick’s establishment.

As we eventually cut to the casino, we are first introduced to Rick through a closeup of a document that he is authorising. The fact that he uses his own name to represent his authority, merely writing OK RICK” establishes that he sits at the highest level of importance within the café. We then cut to a shot of Rick’s arm handing the document to another man, before the camera finally tilts up into a closeup of Rick himself.

Curtiz briefly pulls Rick out of focus in order to draw attention to his rugged and weary face, demonstrating that he is a weathered and experienced figure.

The sequence concludes with an over-the-shoulder shot of Rick observing his empire. Each person appears to be looking up at Rick, seeking his approval.

Sound

As the camera crabs and pushes in towards Sam, the diegetic sound of Sam’s singing rises in the mix. We are able to hear him more clearly the closer the camera gets, further immersing the viewer within the establishment.

Mise-en-scène

The actors are deliberately blocked out of the way of the camera, which allows for clean shots of the interior. This immerses the viewer within Rick’s world as we seamlessly glide into his inner sanctum.

The chessboard on Rick’s desk perhaps conveys symbolism. We can see that the black pieces are on Rick’s sides, emphasising his mysterious and powerful presence. Rick also smokes and drinks alcohol, which conveys his masculinity to the viewer. The camera finally tilts up to reveal that Rick is wearing a white tuxedo and a black bow tie, emphasising his elegance and sophistication.

Editing

After the closeup of Sam singing, we cut to a wide shot of a different angle of the café. Through the use of a sophisticated L-cut, we are still able to hear Sam singing. This subconsciously informs the viewer of the fact that we are still in Rick’s café, despite the cut to a different angle.

Performance

To inform us of the fact that the bar is a seedy location, the viewer is presented with some shady exchanges in which the actors speak in a hushed manner. For example, a man tells a man to remember to pay him in cash, which provokes the viewer to fill in the blanks. This reinforces the secretive and illicit nature of this dealings.

Context and Representation

Rick’s café is another expensive set that a large portion of the film takes place in. Because of this, the set is displayed frequently in order to foreground the lavish production values of the constructed reality that is the café.

Rick’s iconic white tuxedo with a black bow tie inspired the likes of later cinematic icons like James Bond.

The fact that Rick is displayed drinking and smoking only serves to paint him as a rugged, masculine individual. To contrast this, the women seen in the café are lit in a juxtaposing light, serving to accentuate their femininity.

Casablanca Close-Up (“Enemy Arriving” Sequence)

Overview

The “Enemy Arriving” sequence serves to introduce the audience to the main antagonistic force of Casablanca – the Nazis. The sequence also further establishes the shady occurrences within Casablanca, as well as the refugees’ desire to leave Casablanca to depart for America.

Cinematography

The aspect ratio of the film is 4:3, which was the standard practice at the time and was referred to as the ‘academy ratio’. Through the deliberate blocking of the waiter, who perfectly positions himself between the couple, this allows the three of them to be viewed in a single shot within the square frame. They are in prime position for the conversation to take place most effectively.

The wide shot of the couple sitting outside in the cafe is shot in deep focus. Through this, the viewer is able to view the French sigil in the background of the shot, which allows for efficient storytelling.

A wide shot displays the plane landing in the airport, after which we cut to a slightly closer shot with an identical composition, this being an example of subtle continuity editing. As the Nazis walk out from the plane, the camera pulls back to naturally transform the three-shot into a five-shot.

Sound

The diegetic sounds of the plane rise in the mix during the shots that display it landing, but lower when we cut to the citizens of Casablanca gazing at the plane. This allows for the audience to hear their dialogue, providing a more immersive experience.

Mise-en-scène

A model aeroplane is used to create the illusion of a real plane flying in the air. The plane also flies by Rick’s cafe, prominently displaying the sign to the viewer. This suggests it will be an important location. All of the actors are blocked in a way that frames the shot in order to divert the viewer’s attention towards the plane. The shape of the archway in the airport is also noticeably stylistic, reinforcing the exoticism of Casablanca.

Editing

The considerate use of blocking meant that the frequency of cuts was able to be reduced, thus making the editing seem invisible

The shot of the plane in the air cross-fades into a matte painting of the airport, providing a seamless transition.

Performance

The actors playing foreign refugees all perform in a stereotypical manner that immediately gives the viewer an idea as to where they are from.

Renault presents himself in an affable and happy-go-lucky manner, characterising himself as the sleazy police chief.

Context and Representation

Warner Bros. constructed an expensive set of Casablanca purely for the film, which is populated by a multiplicity of extras. This constructed reality serves to provide the highest sense of immersion for the viewer.

The sequence involving the pickpocket is representative of the shady atmosphere present throughout Casablanca.

The residents of Casablanca are wistfully transfixed onto the plane, informing the viewer that they are seeking an escape. A short dialogue exchange also confirms this.

The Nazis behave in a very formal and mechanical manner that is representative of how Jack L. Warner perceived them to be.

Auteur

A typical Michael Curtiz technique involved pulling out the camera from a two-shot in order to reveal a third person in the frame. This technique can be seen in this sequence, when the camera pulls out to reveal a third man talking to the couple who are sitting down. This is an example of efficient camerawork, in which the editing is able to naturally blend into the background.

Casablanca Close-Up (Opening Sequence)

Overview

The opening sequence of Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) serves to aptly introduce the viewer to the film, establishing the setting, tone, and general premise. The sequence is highly expositional, utilising narration to explain the current war situation, as well as why refugees are fleeing to Casablanca. We also learn of the two German couriers suspected of possessing the important documents, and witness a murder occur in broad daylight. This all serves to present the Nazis as the domineering antagonistic force of the film.

Cinematography

The opening narration is accompanied by the animation of a dramatic spinning globe, after which the camera pushes into a visual representation of the journey.

The idyllic nature of the city begins to fade as the camera tilts down into the crowded streets. This reveals an expansive set populated by a mass of extras.

The man speaking into the telephone is centrally framed in full focus as he speaks into the telephone, fully diverting the viewer’s attention towards him and the expositional dialogue he recites. He proceeds to explain the case of the German couriers suspected of being in Casablanca possessing important documents.

Sound

The first notable aspect of Casablanca’s opening sequence is Max Steiner’s highly triumphant score that enters the mix in a grandiose manner as the credits roll, which naturally segues into the French national anthem. This provides a twofold sense of international exoticism alongside patriotism. After the opening credits sequence concludes, the score lowers in the mix and the non-diegetic narration rises in the mix.

The diegetic narration establishes the exposition for the film, explaining the path the refugees take in order to reach Casablanca.

Steiner’s non-diegetic score now lowers in the mix, foregrounding the diegetic busy ambience of the streets.

The French national anthem is played in a minor key after the murder, emphasising the political unrest that lies at the heart of Casablanca.

Mise-en-scène

Casablanca is portrayed as an idyllic destination through the use of narration, which is merely accentuated by a hand drawn matte painting of the city. This illustrates a vivid world of vitality, yet the clouds are dark – suggesting that a force of evil resides within the city.

As we cut back to the streets of the city, an erratic atmosphere is created. Each extra is blocked in a way that creates a sense of business, as the police car enters the scene.

Editing

We cross-fade between each country, after which the camera pulls out to display the scale. The map is superimposed onto live-action footage, providing a dual sense of enticing scale alongside realism. This ultimately provides a sense of heightened immersion for the viewer.

We then cross-fade into the office of a man receiving a telegram.

The pace of the editing begins to quicken, demonstrating the urgency of the situation. This sequence merely serves to assist the narrative, providing a sense of urgency that contextualises the persecution of the refugees in the city.

Performance

A sense of escalation is created through the narration as the man utters the line “wait… and wait”, suggesting that hopelessness is exuded throughout Casablanca.

Although most of these scenarios occur silently, we are presented one where the dialogue is able to be heard. This efficient method of storytelling is highly typical of the Classical Hollywood style prominent during the Golden Age of Hollywood.

The German soldiers speak in highly exaggerated accents, informing the audience that they are not filming locally in Morocco and instead employ American actors to put on an accent.

Context and Representation

The film opens with a large Warner Bros. logo, with Jack L. Warner’s name proudly displayed at the forefront, immediately informing the viewing that it is ‘his’ film. Despite his lack of personal involvement, Warner pioneered the film’s production and oversaw prolific elements of the pre-production stage. The stars, such as Humphrey Bogart and Paul Henreid are listed before the title of the film itself, demonstrating that the stars outweighed the film in terms of influence. It is also interesting to make note of the fact that Michael Curtiz’ name is the same size as the rest of the producers, suggesting a level of equal collaboration between them – reinforcing the idea of the studio auteur.

The film is shot in black and white, which was highly characteristic of Warner Bros. at the time. By 1942, colour had been implemented into a small number films for around a decade, such as The Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming, 1939), but the technology was considered by many to be a ‘gimmick’. During the time of Casablanca’s release, black and white was arguably at its peak. Choosing to continue a film in black and white despite the invention of colour demonstrated artistic nuance, as the iconic ‘noir aesthetic’ had now been refined for over 50 years. Colour was not as ‘sterile’ as black and white was during this time, only being able to display highly saturated colours.

When the man possessing the out-of-date documents is shot by the Nazis, no blood is displayed at all – he merely falls over and the viewer must assume he is dead. This is indicative of the Hays code: the content regulations that each of the Hollywood studios had to conform to. The effects of violence were not allowed to be shown on screen, and even firing a gun at someone was pushing the limits of the regulations.

The leaflet embossed with the ‘Free France’ propaganda message is centrally framed, being symbolically ironic due to the man being shot under the French message that is promoting freedom. This demonstrates Jack L. Warner’s influence upon the film – he firmly believed that war should feature prominently throughout the film, and it is suspected that the film was his way of signalling America to join the war.

Institution As Auteur: Warner Brothers

A small circle of key individuals were heavily involved in the creative production process of Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942). The idea of the executive producer, producer(s), and director having almost an equal amount of creative control was commonplace throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood, and this became known as the ‘studio auteur’. Below is a list of these individuals, explaining the roles they played throughout the production process of Casablanca.

Executive Producer: Jack Warner

Jack Leonard Warner was a Canadian-American film executive, being the president and figurehead of the Warner Brothers’ Burbank Studio. With a career spanning forty five years, Warner became known for his incisive judgement and confidence, inciting a steep level of fear within many of his employees.

He both acquired Warner Brothers’ impressive ‘stable’ of film stars and also promoted the gritty social dramas that the studio was later characterised by. Warner’s primary duties involved overseeing the films produced by the studio, and making suggestions that he believed would enhance the film. His primary agenda involved accurate representations of cultural customs and atmospheres, and this can be vividly observed throughout Casablanca.

*Jack L. Warner pictured with Bette Davis (left) and Joan Crawford (right)*

Producer: Hal B. Wallis

Harold Brent Wallis was a Warner Bros. film producer, best known for producing Casablanca, The Adventures of Robin Hood (Michael Curtiz, 1938), and True Grit (Henry Hathaway, 1969). Throughout his career as a producer, Wallis received 19 Best Picture nominations. After Warner Bros., Wallis was affiliated with Paramount Pictures during which he oversaw films starring Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis, and Elvis Presley.

In late 1941, Wallis became fascinated by an unproduced stage play called Everybody Comes to Rick’s. In late December of that same year he bought the film rights for $20,000 and changed the title to Casablanca. Wallis also wrote the famous final line of the film: “This could be the start of a beautiful friendship.”

During the 1943 Academy Awards, Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1943) won the award for Best Picture. Upon being announced, Hal B. Wallis got up to accept the award, only to find that Jack Warner had rushed onstage “with a broad, flashing smile and a look of great self-satisfaction”. Wallis later recalled that “I couldn’t believe it was happening. Casablanca had been my creation; Jack had absolutely nothing to do with it. As the audience gasped, I tried to get out of the row of seats and into the aisle, but the entire Warner family sat blocking me. I had no alternative but to sit down again, humiliated and furious. … Almost forty years later, I still haven’t recovered from the shock.” This dispute demonstrates the contention of the true ownership of the film, as Jack Warner believed that he was in the right to claim all the glory, merely due to him being the figurehead of the studio.

Director: Michael Curtiz

Michael Curtiz was a Hungarian-American director who became the head of Warner Brothers’ Burbank studio. Curtiz’ filmography is vast, spanning over 100 films, the majority of which were released under Warner Brothers. Within Hollywood, Curtiz pioneered the utilisation of: lighting to create a particular aesthetic, fluid camera movements, high crane shots, alongside the use of unusual camera angles.

Curtiz is considered a highly versatile director, handling an eclectic range of genres throughout his time at Warner Bros, including the likes of: comedy, romance, film noir, musicals, Westerns, and horror. Curtiz believed that the “human and fundamental problems of real people” were integral to creating gripping drama, and often based his films on the foundation of this precept.

Curtiz’s vast body of work is greatly outshined by Casablanca, being a cornerstone of the entire Golden Age era. It is a key exemplar of the ‘studio auteur’ style of filmmaking that dominated the cinematic landscape of the Golden Age, epitomising all of the tropes that the Classic Hollywood style would later be known for.

*Michael Curtiz (director), Ingrid Bergman (actress), and Hal. B Wallis* *(producer) pictured together*

Cinematographer: Arthur Edeson

Arthur Edeson was a cinematographer whose career ran through both the Golden Age of Hollywood – including both the Silent and Sound Eras. He worked on many landmarks of the era, namely All Quiet on the Western Front (Lewis Milestone, 1930) and of course, Casablanca. Co-founding the American Society of Cinematographers, Edeson’s style was built on the influence of German Expressionism brought to America through German cinematographers during the 1920s, whilst also keeping to the style of gritty realism popular within the Hollywood studio system.

*Arthur Edeson on the set of Casablanca with Dooley Wilson (Sam) and Ingrid Bergman (Ilsa)*

Composer: Max Steiner

Maximilian Raoul Steiner was an Austrian composer and conductor who, after emigrating to America in 1914, became a renowned composer for Hollywood. He composed over 300 film scores with both RKO and Warner Bros., being nominated for 24 Academy Awards.

Steiner’s score is an integral component in Casablanca’s long-lasting legacy, providing a rich romantic evocation that serves to accentuate the relationship between Rick and Ilsa that lies at the heart of the film.

Classical Hollywood Style

Throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood, a distinctive style of filmmaking was birthed under the control of the studio system. Being produced between the 1930-1960s, the filmmakers aptly utilised each of the key elements of film form in order to augment the emotional weight of the narrative being told.

The films produced throughout this era often shared a handful of common narrative conventions. These included a psychologically defined individual who is caught in a struggle to solve a problem or achieve their goals. There is usually a conflict between this central protagonist and other external circumstances, before resulting in a clear-cut victory or defeat at the end of the film.

This narrative-driven and newly audiovisual style of filmmaking has been broken down into the key elements below, with a few specific examples from Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) being provided.

*Mind map that details the features of Classical Hollywood style*

Monopoly Oligopoly Panoply

The overwhelming prominence of the ‘Big Five’ studios monopolising the landscape of cinema ultimately led to the United States vs Paramount Pictures case of 1948, also referred to as the Hollywood Antitrust Case.

*The famous entrance to Paramount Studio*

Over the course of the 1930s, each of the ‘Big Five’ owned the cinemas in which their films were exclusively shown, either independently or as a partnership with another studio. This meant that only films produced by a specific studio were able to be shown in those cinemas. By 1945, the film studios owned an overall 17% of cinemas in America, accounting for 45% of the film-rental revenue. This meant that it was not financially viable to release a film independently, or show any film made outside of America in these cinemas. It was clear that the studios were dominating the film industry, establishing an illegal oligopoly.

This led to a group of filmmakers filing a formal complaint to the US Department of Justice, suggesting that the studios’ tactic of vertical integration was an illegal situation that violated antitrust law. In 1938, the studios were all sued by the justice department, with Paramount acting as the primary defendant due to its status as one of the biggest of the ‘Big Five. With the seven other studios – alongside a multitude of subsidiaries – being co-defendants of the case, each head of the studios were prosecuted and personally at risk of losing their livelihoods. The case was settled in 1940 with a consent decree, allowing the government to resume prosecution if the studios did not comply to four conditions by a reassessment that would take place in November 1943. These conditions included the following:

Each of the ‘Big Five’ studios could no longer block-book short films that would accompany the feature-length main film at the cinema
The studios could continue to block-book feature-length films, but the block size was now limited to five films
The practice of ‘blind buying’ was made illegal. This practice involved the studios selling their films to the cinemas without showing them beforehand
A voluntary industry-wide administration board would be created to ensure that these practices were adhered to

After reviewing the case in 1943, it became abundantly clear that the studios had not fully complied to the conditions of the decree. The studios went to trial once again in 1945, with the District Court ruling in favour of the studios, after which the government promptly appealed to the Supreme Court. After reaching the Supreme Court in 1948, they ruled that the studios did not fully comply with the consent decree, and declared that the studios were not allowed to own cinemas anymore, and must sell all of them.

This, coupled with the rising popularity of television in the 1950s, led to a steep decline in the revenue of the studios. Audiences could now watch films from the comfort of their own homes, and others did not have easy access to a cinema, meaning that television was the more convenient option. This ruling also broadened the range of films that American audiences had access to: smaller, independent films were now able to be shown in cinemas, due to cinemas now being able to freely show films from different studios. This ultimately decimated the fortune of the Hollywood studio system – the studios were forced to diversify their practices and the rise in competition skyrocketed.

The United States vs Paramount Pictures case of 1948 was a turning point for Hollywood. The ruling of the Supreme Court ultimately spelled the end of the Golden Age era and birthed the ‘New Hollywood’ era of filmmaking, in which directors began to claim much more creative control over the studios.

The Big Five And The Little Three: The Golden Age Of Hollywood (1930-1960)

Over the course of the Golden Age of Hollywood, American filmmaking ultimately coalesced around Hollywood – a suburb of Los Angeles. Filmmaking was considered both a huge commercial proposition and a business first and foremost, which led to the emergence of a small number of domineering film studios. These corporations fiercely competed against each other in order to produce grander and more impressive films.

The Studios

By the 1930s, eight American film studios had been established – all being conceived at similar times throughout the previous two decades. Colloquially known as the ‘Big Five’ and ‘Little Three’, each of these studios appeared to be very similar on the surface, however each studio possessed a multiplicity of business intricacies that separated them from one another. Each studio had its own unique selling point, attempting to offer something fresh to the table. The studios that made up the ‘Big Five’ included: Metro Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Paramount, 20th Century Fox, Warner Brothers, and RKO. The ‘Little Three’ studios were United Artists, Universal Pictures, and Columbia Pictures – the latter two of which ironically possess a very prolific presence throughout the cinema of the modern day.

Most of the eight studios established themselves by originating from a small chain of cinemas which went on to merge with an array of production companies in Hollywood. These studios then dominated the filmmaking landscape over the late 1910s and 1920s, before The Great Depression of 1929. A few of the studios, such as MGM and Columbia, were able to weather the effects of The Great Depression, and continue strongly into the 1940s, whereas other studios such as 20th Century Fox and Universal were not as fortunate, and had to sell significant assets to survive.

Studios such as MGM offered films which provided glamour and spectacle, also embracing cutting-edge technology such as Technicolor. MGM produced films such as Gone With The Wind (Victor Fleming, 1939) and The Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming, 1939). Other studios such as Paramount were known for producing light entertainment, such as comedy, whilst also dabbling in biblical epics, such as The Ten Commandments (Cecil B. DeMille, 1956). Both Paramount and Columbia embraced the invention of television in the 1950s and 60s, increasing the studios’ longevity. One of the ‘Little Three’ studios, Columbia, chose to produce B-movies to sell to the bigger studios. These were secondary films that acted as an accompaniment to the main event being shown at the cinema. Columbia managed to successfully survive the Great Depression with no repercussions, primarily due to the fact that they did not have a ‘stable’ of actors to hinder them.

The majority of the eight studios were frequently passed around by a handful of corporations throughout the 1980s and 90s and underwent a business model transformation, such as Universal who in the 1970s, began to focus primarily on releasing a handful of expensive blockbusters each year. These included the likes of Jaws (Steven Spielberg, 1975) and Jurassic Park (Steven Spielberg, 1993) In the case of RKO, the name of the studio died out completely and the company was merely absorbed into Paramount.

Vertical Integration and Unbreakable Contracts

The studios also implemented the business tactic of vertical integration, with each studio overseeing and taking ownership of all the means of production. Studios contracted screenwriters, editors, actors, directors, and even entire cinemas in an attempt to monopolise the film industry. From a business perspective, this meant that little to no money spilled out of the studio and each of the eight studios managed to fully maximise their profits, and dominate the market. Due to the studios owning all of the cinemas in United States, this meant there was no opportunity for American audiences to view films outside of the realm of the American studios and cinemas.

The actors were claimed by the studios through the use of ‘unbreakable’ exclusivity contracts that meant that the actor was required to star in a set block of films for that studio and were prevented from making films with any other studio. These actors were the ‘pull’ that drew audiences into cinemas and were thus a vital bargaining chip for the studios. Through this, each studio proudly possessed a ‘stable’ of stars, all of whom would frequently appear in each of the studios’ films that they would go on to produce.

Because of this, studios began to fear the prospect of losing a specific film star after they were approaching the final film on their contract. Many studios decided to ‘cheat the system’ and decided to simply not produce the final film in an actor’s given contract, rendering the contract ‘unbreakable’. From there, many actors were forced to make an impossible decision: either sign another contract with the same studio or never make another film.

As a result of this, four film stars in particular were extremely unhappy with the state of the studio system, claiming that the studios collected an disproportionate amount of money, and did not treat actors fairly. D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks collectively founded United Artists – a company premised on allowing actors to control their own line of work, rather than being fully dependant upon the domineering film studios.

*The four film stars creating the United Artists studio*

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942)

Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) is arguably the most prolific and well-acclaimed film released during the Golden Age era of Hollywood. It is an American romance/drama film starring Humphrey Bogart, Ingrid Bergman, and Paul Henreid. Being a landmark of cinema, Casablanca’s characters, quotes, and evocative theme song have garnered an iconic status over the last 80 years.

Plot

The film was both shot and takes place during World War II, centering around the protagonist, Rick Blaine – a cynical owner of a gambling den in Casablanca, Morocco – a French colony. The club is a cultural hub of refugees attempting to acquire visas to depart for America, who remained neutral in the war at the time. Rick’s cafe also hosts a number of Vichy French and German officials who attempt to persecute these refugees. Rick himself claims to be neutral in all matters, but we soon learn that he was a gunrunner for Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and also fought for the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War, demonstrating to the viewer that he fights for justice.

A crook called Ugarte has obtained “letters of transit” by killing two German couriers. These letters allow the bearers to travel freely around German-occupied Europe. Being highly sought after among the refugees in Rick’s club, Ugarte plans to sell them and persuades Rick to hold the letters for him. Ugarte is instead arrested by Captain Louis Renault – the corrupt police prefect of Casablanca – and dies in custody, keeping the fact that Rick has the letters secret.

Afterwards, a woman called Ilsa Lund enters Rick’s cafe. After Ilsa asks the club’s pianist, Sam, to play “As Time Goes By”, Rick becomes initially furious at Sam for disobeying his order to never play that song again. However, as Rick spots Ilsa, he is astonished and his anger is relieved immediately. It becomes clear that the couple have a history. Ilsa is married to Victor Laszlo, a Czech Resistance leader who is a fugitive and the couple seek an escape to America. A Nazi leader, Major Heinrich Strasser, enters the club in an attempt to arrest Victor.

After finding out that Rick possesses the letters of transit, Victor attempts to buy the letters off him. Rick refuses his offer and informs him to ask his wife, Ilsa, the reason why. Ilsa then confronts Rick to inquire why he refused her husband the letters, threatening him with a gun. She soon professes that she still loves Rick and explains that she thought that Victor had been killed while trying to escape from a concentration camp. We cut to a flashback sequence, and receive a glimpse of Rick and Ilsa’s time in Paris together. As the couple are about to flee the city together, Ilsa mysteriously abandons Rick without explanation to see her husband, who we learn is in a physically distraught condition after escaping the camp.

After learning this, Rick agrees to help the couple, falsely informing Ilsa that he will stay with her when Victor leaves. Victor enters unexpectedly and learns of Rick’s feelings for Ilsa. After she leaves, Victor tries to persuade him to use the letters of transit to take her to safety. Victor is then arrested by the police, during which Rick convinces Renault to release him by promising to set him up for the crime of possessing the letters. Rick explains to Renault that he and Ilsa are soon departing for America. Renault declines and attempts to arrest Victor, before Rick threatens him with a gun.

Right as the plane to Lisbon is about to leave, Rick tells Ilsa to board the plane with Victor, informing her that she would regret going with him and that “we’ll always have Paris”. Major Strasser attempts to intervene and arrest Victor, before Rick promptly shoots him. After the police arrive, Renault orders them to “round up the usual suspects”, before suggesting to Rick that they join the Free French in Brazzaville. As Victor and Ilsa depart for Lisbon, Rick and Renault walk away into the mist. Rick says, “Louis, I think is the beginning of a beautiful friendship.”

Context

The film was directed by Michael Curtiz, a Hungarian-American director who became the head of Warner Brothers’ Burbank studio. Curtiz’ filmography is vast, spanning over 100 films that were all released under Warner Brothers.

Released in 1942, Casablanca gained immediate critical success, winning three Oscars including Best Director – despite Warner Brothers’ apprehensiveness towards the film, fearing that it would flop. This was due to the fact that it was filmed over the course of three rushed months, with the actors and Curtiz not working well together on set. Casablanca was merely one of a multiplicity films released by Warner Brothers’ in 1942, and was neither the most expensive film nor the film the studio expected to take off.

Despite taking place in the exotic location of Casablanca in Morocco, the entire film was shot at Warner Brothers Studios in Burbank, California – the only exception being the the opening sequence in which Strasser flies past a aeroplane hangar, filmed at Van Nuys Airport, Los Angeles.

As previously mentioned, the film was both shot and takes place during World War II. Interestingly, the film was shot a mere four months before the events of Pearl Harbour, which is why the United States remain a neutral territory in the film. It exists in a liminal period in which America was fully at war, but not yet fully immersed in a propagandistic war ideology.

*A shot from the opening sequence of Casablanca*

Techniques

The film’s narrative is predominantly linear, with Curtiz making use of one flashback sequence to illustrate Rick and Ilsa’s romantic affairs in Paris. Curtiz also employs lots of centrally-framed closeups of both Rick and Ilsa, with key lighting and fill lighting also being implemented. Through this, both harsh shadows and well-defined outlines of the characters are created. This, alongside the fact that the film is in black and white accentuates the wistful emotion and atmosphere of the film. Due to the lighting, Ilsa appears to be emanating a sort of radiance which contributes to the mythical nature of her character. Rick’s cafe also feels incredibly lived-in and bustling through the use of blocking, mise-en-scène, and diegetic ambience.

As previously mentioned, the film’s main theme is particularly iconic – the diegetic implementation of the 1931 jazz piece, As Time Goes By. The piece provides a strong romantic evocation, and is played by Sam, the house pianist, in Rick’s club.

I really enjoyed Casablanca for the inarguably timeless romance story it offered, underpinned by the hardships faced by the refugees of World War II . It holds up extremely well for an 80-year-old film, and its prestigious pedestal in cinematic history is well deserved.

Overall, I would rate Casablanca ★★★★.

*A central closeup of Ilsa,* *enhanced by key and fill lighting*

From Buster to Bogart

After film was popularised during the 1910s, it soon went from being a ‘seaside attraction’ to a commercial and vastly popular form of mass entertainment. This occurred through the death of music hall as a form of entertainment, during which cinemas overtook the buildings that were previously music halls. American entrepreneurs soon began to view film as a grand business opportunity first and foremost, rather than an art form.

Over the course of the 20th Century, film in America undertook a variety of forms. Throughout the 1910s, short films known as ‘two-reelers’ were the most popular form of entertainment. Focusing particularly on comedy, action, and romance, this style of filmmaking was perfected by the silent stars of the 1920s, such as Buster Keaton.

Film’s exponential gain in popularity over the course of the 1920s led to a drastic rise in competition, ultimately forming the ‘Big Five’ film studios that dominated the playing field. Each studio attempted to provide a sense of differentiation, offering bigger budgets, more exotic filming locations as well as featuring the most prolific stars. The studios also implemented the business tactic of vertical integration, with each studio overseeing and taking ownership of every stage of film production. Studios contracted screenwriters, editors, actors and even entire cinemas in an attempt to monopolise the film industry. Through this, both the ‘studio system’ and ‘star system’ were established.

Four film stars in particular were extremely unhappy with the state of the studio system, claiming that the studios collected an inordinate amount of money from the booming film business. D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks collectively founded United Artists – a company premised on allowing actors to control their own line of work, rather than being fully dependant upon the domineering film studios.

*D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks founding United Artists*

Component 1a: Hollywood 1930-1990 (Comparative Study)

The next component we are studying is Component 1a: Hollywood 1930-1990. This section of the course entails two films of study, Casablanca (Michael Curtiz, 1942) and Bonnie and Clyde (Arthur Penn, 1967) . Throughout this component, the areas of study are the core study areas (including the key elements, contexts, aesthetics and representation) as well as two specialist study areas – Auteurship and Context. This component also involves a direct comparison between the two studied films, unlike previous two-film components.

Being the french word for ‘author’, the concept of auteurship suggests the that each work of art is produced by a single artist alone. In concept, this auteur possesses full creative and artistic control over the film and thus, their ‘style’ becomes highly distinctive. Auteurs are often defined by specific reoccurring traits and techniques that appear throughout their body of work, placing their name above the film itself.

Context details the relevant cultural, historical, institutional, political, social, and technological background information surrounding the two films we will study.