film industry – Otis Morley’s A-Level Film Studies Blog

The Big Five And The Little Three: The Golden Age Of Hollywood (1930-1960)

Over the course of the Golden Age of Hollywood, American filmmaking ultimately coalesced around Hollywood – a suburb of Los Angeles. Filmmaking was considered both a huge commercial proposition and a business first and foremost, which led to the emergence of a small number of domineering film studios. These corporations fiercely competed against each other in order to produce grander and more impressive films.

The Studios

By the 1930s, eight American film studios had been established – all being conceived at similar times throughout the previous two decades. Colloquially known as the ‘Big Five’ and ‘Little Three’, each of these studios appeared to be very similar on the surface, however each studio possessed a multiplicity of business intricacies that separated them from one another. Each studio had its own unique selling point, attempting to offer something fresh to the table. The studios that made up the ‘Big Five’ included: Metro Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Paramount, 20th Century Fox, Warner Brothers, and RKO. The ‘Little Three’ studios were United Artists, Universal Pictures, and Columbia Pictures – the latter two of which ironically possess a very prolific presence throughout the cinema of the modern day.

Most of the eight studios established themselves by originating from a small chain of cinemas which went on to merge with an array of production companies in Hollywood. These studios then dominated the filmmaking landscape over the late 1910s and 1920s, before The Great Depression of 1929. A few of the studios, such as MGM and Columbia, were able to weather the effects of The Great Depression, and continue strongly into the 1940s, whereas other studios such as 20th Century Fox and Universal were not as fortunate, and had to sell significant assets to survive.

Studios such as MGM offered films which provided glamour and spectacle, also embracing cutting-edge technology such as Technicolor. MGM produced films such as Gone With The Wind (Victor Fleming, 1939) and The Wizard of Oz (Victor Fleming, 1939). Other studios such as Paramount were known for producing light entertainment, such as comedy, whilst also dabbling in biblical epics, such as The Ten Commandments (Cecil B. DeMille, 1956). Both Paramount and Columbia embraced the invention of television in the 1950s and 60s, increasing the studios’ longevity. One of the ‘Little Three’ studios, Columbia, chose to produce B-movies to sell to the bigger studios. These were secondary films that acted as an accompaniment to the main event being shown at the cinema. Columbia managed to successfully survive the Great Depression with no repercussions, primarily due to the fact that they did not have a ‘stable’ of actors to hinder them.

The majority of the eight studios were frequently passed around by a handful of corporations throughout the 1980s and 90s and underwent a business model transformation, such as Universal who in the 1970s, began to focus primarily on releasing a handful of expensive blockbusters each year. These included the likes of Jaws (Steven Spielberg, 1975) and Jurassic Park (Steven Spielberg, 1993) In the case of RKO, the name of the studio died out completely and the company was merely absorbed into Paramount.

Vertical Integration and Unbreakable Contracts

The studios also implemented the business tactic of vertical integration, with each studio overseeing and taking ownership of all the means of production. Studios contracted screenwriters, editors, actors, directors, and even entire cinemas in an attempt to monopolise the film industry. From a business perspective, this meant that little to no money spilled out of the studio and each of the eight studios managed to fully maximise their profits, and dominate the market. Due to the studios owning all of the cinemas in United States, this meant there was no opportunity for American audiences to view films outside of the realm of the American studios and cinemas.

The actors were claimed by the studios through the use of ‘unbreakable’ exclusivity contracts that meant that the actor was required to star in a set block of films for that studio and were prevented from making films with any other studio. These actors were the ‘pull’ that drew audiences into cinemas and were thus a vital bargaining chip for the studios. Through this, each studio proudly possessed a ‘stable’ of stars, all of whom would frequently appear in each of the studios’ films that they would go on to produce.

Because of this, studios began to fear the prospect of losing a specific film star after they were approaching the final film on their contract. Many studios decided to ‘cheat the system’ and decided to simply not produce the final film in an actor’s given contract, rendering the contract ‘unbreakable’. From there, many actors were forced to make an impossible decision: either sign another contract with the same studio or never make another film.

As a result of this, four film stars in particular were extremely unhappy with the state of the studio system, claiming that the studios collected an disproportionate amount of money, and did not treat actors fairly. D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks collectively founded United Artists – a company premised on allowing actors to control their own line of work, rather than being fully dependant upon the domineering film studios.

*The four film stars creating the United Artists studio*

From Buster to Bogart

After film was popularised during the 1910s, it soon went from being a ‘seaside attraction’ to a commercial and vastly popular form of mass entertainment. This occurred through the death of music hall as a form of entertainment, during which cinemas overtook the buildings that were previously music halls. American entrepreneurs soon began to view film as a grand business opportunity first and foremost, rather than an art form.

Over the course of the 20th Century, film in America undertook a variety of forms. Throughout the 1910s, short films known as ‘two-reelers’ were the most popular form of entertainment. Focusing particularly on comedy, action, and romance, this style of filmmaking was perfected by the silent stars of the 1920s, such as Buster Keaton.

Film’s exponential gain in popularity over the course of the 1920s led to a drastic rise in competition, ultimately forming the ‘Big Five’ film studios that dominated the playing field. Each studio attempted to provide a sense of differentiation, offering bigger budgets, more exotic filming locations as well as featuring the most prolific stars. The studios also implemented the business tactic of vertical integration, with each studio overseeing and taking ownership of every stage of film production. Studios contracted screenwriters, editors, actors and even entire cinemas in an attempt to monopolise the film industry. Through this, both the ‘studio system’ and ‘star system’ were established.

Four film stars in particular were extremely unhappy with the state of the studio system, claiming that the studios collected an inordinate amount of money from the booming film business. D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks collectively founded United Artists – a company premised on allowing actors to control their own line of work, rather than being fully dependant upon the domineering film studios.

*D.W. Griffith, Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks founding United Artists*

Silent Cinema: Stars And Studios In The States

Originating in the late 1800s, film began when Lumiere brothers discovered that if you displayed images in a rapid sequence (24 per second), it would create the illusion of a moving image. The first films were originally shot at an unmoving wide angle without any sound. At the time, one reel of film lasted around 8-12 minutes. Because of this, most films used two reels of film and were appropriately dubbed ‘two-reelers’. By the 1910s, filmmakers incorporated varying angles and used a multitude of sets within in a single film – portraying spatial and temporal movement.

As opposed to Germany and Russia, America did not view film as a new art form first and foremost. Instead, many American entrepreneurs saw film as a grand business opportunity. Because of this, vertical integration quickly took effect and filmmaking was quickly transformed into an assembly line-esque industry. Romance and comedy films were the genres of primary focus, due to these films attracting the highest cinema viewership, as they were easily digestible and relatable to audiences at the time.

In addition to this, slapstick was a very popular genre during the silent era of film, which displayed the actors’ daring athleticism and seemingly impossible feats. Through this, the first ‘stars’ of Hollywood were born – including Charlie Chaplin, Harold Lloyd, Buster Keaton, as well as many others. The slapstick comedy duo Laurel & Hardy also had highly successful careers both during and after the silent era of Hollywood.

As film continued to grow exponentially in popularity, the rise of production facilities throughout America increased. This gave birth to the first film studios, five of which dominated the cinema. Throughout this Golden Age of Hollywood, the main studios included: Paramount, RKO, MGM, Warner Brothers and 20th Century Fox, who had complete control over both production business and distribution firms. It is no understatement to remark upon the fact that these studios were the supreme rulers of the American film industry from the 1920s-50s.

By 1929, almost all films had synchronised sound and film was the most popular art form in the Western world. Audiences visited the cinema primarily to see their favourite stars on the big screen. Because of this, the stars of Hollywood were coerced into signing exclusivity contracts, meaning that they could only work under specific studios. The film studios themselves only continued to grow substantially during the Great Depression, during which actors and directors were merely viewed as assets to possess by the studios. Studios engaged in a practice known as ‘block booking’ which allowed the studio to sell to multiple films to cinemas at once. Each cinema was owned by a particular studio and they had complete creative control over each film that was released under it. Ticket prices were fixed and each studio attempted to monopolise the industry by acquiring film ‘packages’. This meant that a handful of films were immediately owned by the particular studio.

This ultimately led to an over-saturation of uninspired and ‘by the numbers’ films. Filmmakers were restricted to experiment outside of what was absolutely certain to sell tickets. Hollywood’s contemporary association with shallowness, glamour and money originated from this early age of cinema.

The Devil’s Backbone (Guillermo del Toro, 2001)

The Devil’s Backbone (Guillermo del Toro, 2001) is a Spanish horror/drama starring Federico Luppi, Eduardo Noriega and Marisa Paredes. The film details the life of Carlos who is forced to take refuge at the Santa Lucia School for orphans. Over time, Carlos begins to discover the supernatural elements of the orphanage, including a young ghost that strolls the area.

Throughout the film, del Toro utilises a number of filmic techniques in order to tell an extremely visceral and enthralling tale. Firstly, del Toro implements a flashback sequence to create an initial enigma and an interesting narrative structure. This, alongside a multitude of aesthetically pleasing shots intrigues the viewer. In addition to this, del Toro creates a number of tense and terrifying horror sequences throughout.

The film holds a significant place within Guillermo del Toro’s filmography due to the fact that it is an extremely personal passion project. After recently directing the critically condemned big budget blockbuster Mimic (1997), del Toro used the funds from this to produce and direct The Devil’s Backbone. This alternation between a studio project followed by a passion project became typical for del Toro, and this is the film that cemented it.

I personally had mixed reactions towards the film. Although I definitely enjoyed it overall, I found that the film suffered from some pacing issues in the first act. In addition to this, I personally did not connect to any of the characters and found many of their actions to be questionable. Despite this, I thoroughly enjoyed certain set-pieces throughout the film – predominantly the fire scene and the proceeding aftermath.

The film astutely tackles themes such as the supernatural, betrayal as well as loneliness throughout. The message presented over the course of the film emphasises the fact that the true ‘devil’ is the frightening evil that lives within the depths of the human psyche.

Overall, I would rate The Devil’s Backbone ★★★½.

A Brief History Of Cinema

Cinema is a relatively new dominant art form, being around 130 years old. It is ever-evolving and was a revolutionary way in which humans could express themselves. It is also a knowable concept, due to the fact that the entire history of cinema is mapped out and is within our great-grandparents’ lifetimes.

*An early cinema – only one person was able to watch a film* *at a time*

The history of cinema starts in the 1800s, when photography was first invented. This was a revolutionary moment in history, as now you were able to capture a moment of reality. This was done through the process of exposing a camera obscura containing photosensitive chemicals to light. However, early photography took hours and the subject was forced to sit still for a prolonged period. Subsequently, photography quickly developed and soon enough became a business. Afterwards, people began to ponder the idea of moving images, and soon realised that if many images were sequenced together in rapid succession, it created the illusion of movement. This led to the production of early films – which were reminiscent of flip books.

By 1895, technologies were competing to produce moving images, however, it was a mere novelty at this point. There was no infrastructure, film now existed but was solely a “seaside attraction”. Despite this, film soon caught the imagination of the population and was consistently developed and commercialised. Two key pioneers for the film industry were the Lumiere brothers, who developed iconic early films such as Employees Leaving the Lumiere Factory and The Arrival of a Train. These short experiments did not tell a story of any kind, but merely showed the audience of the late 19th Century what film was capable of.

At this point in time, theatre was cheap entertainment and music halls were common place. As these attractions fell out of favour, music halls were replaced by cinemas and soon enough – every town had a cinema. Because of this, the snowball effect began to take place and there was a sudden explosion in both cinemas and film production. Particularly in America, film was recognised as an incredible business model and many entrepreneurs jumped straight to it. Filmmaking was quickly transformed into a factory assembly line in which the studio completed every task. This was known as vertical integration and the money was gained from the public. The American film industry was constantly competing to be bigger, better and have more assets and this was done by spending the most amount of money. Every stereotypical trait that Hollywood is associated with (glamour, scale, money etc.) originated from this point.

Another key trailblazer in the world of filmmaking was George Melies, who invented both substitution splices and double-exposure: two key techniques in modern day cinema. Melies’ most iconic work was A Trip To The Moon (1902) which made great use of both techniques.

During 1900-1910, cinema went from being the “theatre of attractions” to narrative-driven. Films were no longer a series of stills – technology had greatly advanced and full stories were being told. 35mm film was used to shoot, process and produce films. Physical film was used for mainstream cinema up until about 15 years ago until digital filming was used. In order for the human eye to be fooled into perceiving a sequence of images as movement, 24 images must be displayed every second.

By 1920, film was the most popular art form in the Western world due to the fact that it was accessible to everyone. However, colour and sound were problems to be solved. The idea of painting sets was briefly considered, but was deemed far too impractical. Dubbing was also attempted to solve the sound problem, but this didn’t work. At this point, all films were shot in 4:3 aspect ratio (square), as widescreen wasn’t considered until much later.

Throughout the later 20th Century, cinema continuously developed and many problems were solved. The first film with synchronised sound was released in 1927 and two key actors who were famous before and after sound were the comedy duo Laurel & Hardy. Film was used for World War propaganda, as well as many other commercial items.

However, the invention of the television instantly established itself as the main opponent for the film industry. Initially, TVs were far too expensive for the average person, but by the 1950s most average families owned a television. Ticket sales began to decline as there was no reason to go the cinema anymore when you could watch the latest films from the comfort of your own home.

The film industry constantly attempted to overcome the TV problem by initially making cinema screens much wider than TV screens. Going to the cinema now became a prestigious event, rather than a day-to-day activity. New films were additionally not shown on television until many months down the line, this was done to increase cinematic demand. The film industry also briefly dabbled in 3D, but this wasn’t commercially viable.

By the 1970s, VCR was a new competitor for the film industry and video rental shops, such as Blockbuster, dominated the market. As each new obstacle arose, cinema threw money at the problem to counteract it. However, this ultimately failed and by the 1980s, almost every cinema in the UK closed down.

In present day society, the film industry faces many opponents such as TV channels, internet and streaming services.